ob

SOLUTIONS FOR OB QUESTION BANK POST MID-SEM

What actions might the individual himself/herself and their manager take to change their attitudes?

As negative attitudes are contagious than positive ones, a manager must try to stick to the level of optimism. He/she must focus on the good for the co-workers as a result there will be good team building. Here are some of the methods to change attitudes in the workplace.

1. Be appreciative:

It is always nice to appreciate co-workers than back stabbing. Attitudes in the workplace play a vital role in increasing productivity and performance of the job. Usually, positive attitudes are bound to occupational success that leads to customer satisfaction. Appreciating others will help in emerging out of risky challenges.

2. Be grateful:

Regardless of position in the team, cultivating the habits of gratitude will show the part of work. One must try to be thankful to the person in terms of position. The team has to be led as per the company policies and regulations. This suggestion for all leaders will be a pay check. By being grateful one can help each other every day or in case of emergency.

3. Being humble:

By being humble people can lead tough situations but the other co-workers will become backbone. Even if a person has achieved success then the other team members should try to appreciate for the work done. Being humble will help to guide the leadership team as well as will promote day to day wins.

4. Identifying the bad behavior:

Before one begins to turn good the bad attitude at work has to be eradicated, which means people has to identify the causes of bad attitude as to overcome them in the future. It serializes through all other possibilities that are significant by the co-workers. It changes the purpose of life as the other co-workers will notice the bad behavior of an individual at workplace.

5. Effective communication:

Effective communication can be made easier by uttering the word of thanks including managers, office assistants and also the peers. Even thanking the security guard for his work to maintain safety will be better idea. Acknowledging the job that is well done will also help in cultivating positive attitudes in the workplace. It matters when the job acknowledgment is verified. Spending time for celebrating birthdays and also life changes will enhance positive attitude.

Explain the ABC model of attitude with example.

ABC MODEL OF ATTITUDE

Component	Measured by	Example
Affective	Physiological indicators,	I don't like my boss
	Verbal statements about
	feelings

Behavioral Intentions	Observed behavior ,	I want to transfer to
	Verbal statements about	another dept.
	intentions
Cognitive	Attitude scales,	I believe my boss -
	Verbal Statements about	plays favorites.
	beliefs

Do you think that attitudes can be changed? If yes, what are the ways to change attitudes?

Yes attitudes can be changed if we can overcome the barriers to change attitudes. Some of the ways of changing attitudes are as follows:

1. Providing New Information:

One of the ways of changing the attitudes is by providing new information. Sometimes, this information will change a person’s beliefs and in this process his attitudes. This is specifically true when the reason for the negative attitude is insufficient or misleading information. For example, people generally have a negative attitude towards the staff at railway reservation counters.

They believe that the staffs avoid the work. Therefore, whenever there is some delay in getting the reservation, people express their displeasure towards the staff. Such a negative attitude can be changed by drawing the attention of public towards the circumstances in which the staff works. Sometimes, the staff is to deal with illiterate or ignorant passengers which consume a lot of time.

2. Use of Fear:

A second way of changing the attitudes is through the use of fear. Research has found out that fear can cause some people to change their attitude. However, the degree of fear is very important for the final outcome.

For example, the department of health and social welfare prepares an antismoking commercial. If the commercial threatens the people that they will die of cancer if they don’t quit smoking, people simply shut it out and refuse to listen because it is too threatening. As a result the commercial will not have the desired impact. On the other hand, if before giving the advertisement of a cigarette, we give a statutory warning that “cigarette smoking is injurious to health”, it is a very low level fear and people often ignore it. Therefore, health officials should find commercials that use only moderate fear arousal.

3. Resolving Discrepancies:

Another way of changing the attitudes is by resolving discrepancies between attitudes and behaviour. For example, research shows that when a person has more than one offer of a job and he has to make a choice, he often feels that his final choice may have been a mistake.

However, the theory of cognitive dissonance says that this mild conflict or dissonance will not last long because people will try to actively reduce the dissonance by attitude and behaviour change. When he takes the new job and starts working, he will start having negative feelings towards the jobs which he has not chosen and positive ones towards the job which he has chosen. In the end, he will conclude that he has indeed made the right choice.

4. Influence of Friends or Peers:

Change of attitude can come about through persuasion of friends or peers. Credibility of the others, especially the peers, is important to effect change. Peers with high credibility shall exercise significant influence as compared to those peers who have low credibility.

5. The Co-opting Approach:

Another way in which attitude change takes place is by co-opting, which means taking people who are dissatisfied with a situation and getting them involved in improving things. For example, an employee feels that the company should be doing something for improving the employees’ benefits. The company appoints him as a member of the employees benefit committee. By giving him the opportunity to participate in employee benefit decision making, the company increases the chances that his attitude will change. Once he realizes the practical problems involved in determining the best possible benefits and the efforts and hard work involved in it, he is most likely to change his attitude.

6. Oral Persuasion Technique:

All the attitude change techniques are not equally effective across different situations. Another way in which attitude can be changed is through oral-pursuation. Oral pursuation techniques are most effective when you use a positive and tactful tone, present strong evidence and use logic to support your position.

7. Training Sessions:

The use of training sessions in which employees share and personalize their experiences and practice new behaviours can be a powerful stimulant for changing attitude.

Discuss factors which play a role in formation of values in individuals.

Values are learned, beginning soon after birth, as parents and others indicate that that certain behaviors are good and certain other's are bad. Children in many cultures learn quickly that it is good to be obedient and bad to disobey.

The values of the larger culture and society greatly influence what individuals learn. Parents, teachers, peers, heroes and heroines, the media, art, music and personal experience also play a role. The country and the culture in which one is born, its political system and the level of its technology are some of the important factors which influence values. For example, young people in the United States are taught the value of independence; whereas in India young people learn to value individualism, and learn to value groups. People in both countries learn to value ambition.

Differentiate between instrumental and terminal values. Give examples.

Terminal Values - Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.

Instrumental Values - Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values

Example:

Executives

Terminal values	Instrumental values
Self-respect	Honest
Family security	Responsible
Freedom	Capable
A sense of accomplishment	Ambitious
Happiness	Independent

Are there right or wrong values? How should values be used to manage the behaviour of employees in organisations?

Managing employee or system performance and aligning their objectives facilitates the effective delivery of strategic and operational goals. Some proponents argue that there is a clear and immediate correlation between using performance management programs or software and improved business and organizational results. In the public sector, the effects of performance management systems have differed from positive to negative, suggesting that differences in the characteristics of performance management systems and the contexts into which they are implemented play an important role to the success or failure of performance management.

For employee performance management, using integrated software, rather than a spreadsheet based recording system, may deliver a significant return on investment through a range of direct and indirect sales benefits, operational efficiency benefits and by unlocking the latent potential in every employees work day (i.e. the time they spend not actually doing their job). Benefits may include:

Direct financial gain

·              Grow sales

·              Reduce costs in the organization

·              Stop project overruns

·              Aligns the organization directly behind the CEO's goals

·                Decreases the time it takes to create strategic or operational changes by communicating the changes through a new set of goals

Motivated workforce

·              Optimizes incentive plans to specific goals for over achievement, not just business as usual

·                Improves employee engagement because everyone understands how they are directly contributing to the organizations high level goals

·              Create transparency in achievement of goals

·              High confidence in bonus payment process

·                Professional development programs are better aligned directly to achieving business level goals

Improved management control

·              Flexible, responsive to management needs

·              Displays data relationships

·              Helps audit / comply with legislative requirement

·              Simplifies communication of strategic goals scenario planning

·              Provides well documented and communicated process documentation

·               

21.   Define perceptual organization.

-  Perceptual organization is the process of grouping visual elements together (organization) so that one can more readily determine the meaning of the visual as a whole (perception.

22. What is a stimulus?

A stimulus is anything that causes a reaction in an organism. A response is the reaction the organism makes.

Internal stimuli come from inside an organism. Eg – hunger, thirst, fever, fear etc.,

External stimuli come from an organism’s environment. Eg – heat, cold, light etc.,

23. What is self-fulfilling prophecy?

A self-fulfilling prophecy is when a person unknowingly causes a prediction to come true, due to the simple fact that he or she expects it to come true. In other words, an expectation about a subject, such as a person or event, can affect our behavior towards that subject, which causes the expectation to be realized.

For example, a high school volleyball coach expects freshmen to be less skilled, so she does not put them in to play very often. When she does put them in, they are rusty and don't do well, thereby fulfilling her expectations.

24. What is impression management?

Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event. They do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction.

25. What is principle of similarity?

The principle of similarity states that things which share visual characteristics such as shape, size, color, texture, value or orientation will be seen as belonging together.

26. What is projection?

A projection error is the unconscious assumption that others think, feel, judge, or perceive more or less what we do. For instance, those who drink (abstain from) alcohol tend to overestimate (underestimate) the drinking habits of others. This phenomenon is common, but we tend to underestimate its importance at work. In another example, a person who is habitually intolerant may constantly accuse other people of being intolerant. It incorporates blame shifting. According to some research, the projection of one's unconscious qualities onto others is a common process in everyday life.

27. What is principle of proximity?

The principle of proximity is the tendency for people to form social relationships with individuals who are physically closer to them. Proximity means how close an object or person is physically to you.

28. State any two examples of perceptual errors.

One of a common perceptual error in organisations is stereotyping between men and women, also called gender stereotyping. Stereotyping is defined as the tendency to assign attributes to someone solely on the basis of a category in which that person has been

placed. The reason for this perceptual error is to be due to the fact that we were taught and some may have been grown up with the fact that men and women "play" different roles in our society.

The halo effect is a psychological phenomenon that allows a general opinion of something, or someone, to be gathered from one element. For example, if a chef is famous for making one particular dish, then the halo effect allows people to assume that he can cook anything with equal proficiency.

29. What is principle of closure?

The principle of closure refers to the mind’s tendency to see complete figures or forms even if a picture are incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing. For example, if part of a shape’s border is missing people still tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the border and ignore the gaps. This reaction stems from our mind’s natural tendency to recognize patterns that are familiar to us and thus fill in any information that may be missing.

30. What is Halo Effect?

The halo effect is a type of cognitive bases in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think about his or her character. In other words, the halo effect is a psychological phenomenon that allows a general opinion of something, or someone, to be gathered from one element. For example, if a chef is famous for making one particular dish, then the halo effect allows people to assume that he can cook anything with equal proficiency.

31. What is principle of continuity?

Continuity principle refers to vision and is the tendency to create continuous patterns and perceive connected objects as uninterrupted. Sometimes referred to as continuation, this is one category of the five Gestalt laws of grouping that are sets of principles used in psychology that were proposed to account for the human tendency to perceive objects as parts of organized patterns.

32. What is Perception?

Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. In other words, Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.

33. What is attribution?

Attribution is the process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events. Attribution is considered to be a three-stage process. First, the behavior of an individual must be observed. Second, the perceiver must determine that the behavior they have observed is deliberate. That is, the person being observed is believed to have behaved intentionally. Finally, the observer attributes the observed behavior to either internal or external causes.

34. What is Stereotyping?

Stereotype is any thought widely adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of behaving intended to represent the entire group of those individuals or behaviors as a whole. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality.

35. Discuss the causes of external and internal attribution.

External attribution: also called situational attribution, refers to interpreting someone's behavior as being caused by the situation that the individual is in. For example, if Jacob's car tire is punctured he may attribute that to a hole in the road; by making attributions to the poor condition of the highway, he can make sense of the event without any discomfort that it may in reality have been the result of his bad driving.^[5]

Internal:The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic, rather than to outside forces.

36. What is attribution theory? What is its application in OB?

Attribution theory attempts to explain some of the causes of our behavior. Attribution is considered to be a three-stage process. First, the behavior of an individual must be observed. Second, the perceiver must determine that the behavior they have observed is deliberate. That is, the person being observed is believed to have behaved intentionally. Finally, the observer attributes the observed behavior to either internal or external causes. Attribution theory is important for organizations because it can help managers understand some of the causes of employee behavior and can assist employees in understanding their thinking about their own behaviors. If you can understand why you behave a certain way, and why others around you do so, then you have a better understanding of yourself, others, and your organization. The perception of the causes of a certain behavior may affect the judgment and actions of both managers and employees. It may also play a significant role in motivation.

37. Explain the linkage between motivation and perception with examples.

Motivating employees to complete their work correctly and on time is one of the major tasks of management. Changing an employee's perception of his place within a company is sometimes an effective way of improving organizational behavior constructively. Employees who perceive that they have a greater control over their work lives will likely be more motivated to excel within the organizational structure.

A worker's social perception of others within the organization can affect his motivation to complete work effectively to a large degree. Motivation within an organization remains high if a worker perceives that there are opportunities for personal development or professional advancement, if he feels capable of completing tasks correctly and is involved with various organizational decision-making and goal-setting processes. Motivation can be reduced if the worker perceives a lack of opportunity for growth, a lack of involvement or a lack of opportunities to demonstrate any creativity.

Worker output and motivation can be affected by changing the working conditions that are causing negative organizational behaviors. Reducing the size of work groups may allow an employee to feel as though he has a greater input in the work output. Providing time for easy social interaction can improve social intimacy among coworkers and help produce a camaraderie that improves work interactions. Managers must work hard to control their own perceptions of their employees, withholding their own evaluative judgments until they gain adequate information about an employee's work performance.

38.   What is impression management? How does the process of impression management benefit our relationship with others?

Impression management is a conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event. They do so by regulating and controlling information in social interaction

39.   Explain the internal factors of perceptual selection.

The internal factors of perceptual selection are:

a)  Habit

b)  Motivation and interest

c)  Learning

d)  Organizational and specialization

e)  Economic and social background

f)  Personality

40.   Why is it important for managers to have a working knowledge of the perceptual process?

In organizations, perceptions of leaders, managers and employees shape the climate and effectiveness of the working environment. Perception is the way we all interpret our experiences. It is a marvelous and difficult part of human behavior; managers must realize that all individuals have differing perceptions. People are not necessarily successful by attempting to serve their values. People do not, in fact, do what serves their values. They do what they perceive will serve their values. First, this means that there is always a time gap between the brain's consideration of a behavior and the behavior itself. Second, the processing that takes place in this time period is what can be referred to as perception. In the work place, when employees and employers have very strong differing perceptions about quality, quantity, schedules, etc, it becomes very difficult to accomplish meaningful objectives.

41.   Explain the external factors of perceptual selection.

The external attention factors are:

a)  Intensity

b)  Size

c)  Contrast

d)  Repetition

e)  Motion

f)  Novelty and familiarity

g)  Situations

Intensity: The intensity of stimulus implies that the more intense the stimulus audio or visual, the more is the likelihood it will be perceived. A loud noise, strong odour or bright light or bright colours will be more readily perceived than soft sound, weak odour or dim light. It is because of this advantage that advertisers employ intensity to draw the consumers' attention.

Size: The size of the object or stimulus has a greater impact on the perception process because the size influences attention and recognition in a more effective manner. A Great Den dog which is tall attracts the attention. At the same time a pocket dog also attracts attention because of its size. However, generally the larger

the object the more likely it will be perceived. The amount of attention enhances with the size of the newspaper advertisement exposed to the individuals although the increase in attention may not be directly proportional to the increase in size.

Contrast: Contrasting objects have more impact on behaviour. The contrast principle states that external stimuli, which stand out against the background or which, are not what the people expect will receive attention. Plant safety signs, which have black lettering on a yellow background or white lettering on a red background, are attentions getting.

Repetition: Repeated stimuli have more impact on performances than a single statement. Repetition has the advantage of being attention catching. Perhaps, it is because of this that supervisors tend to repeat directions regarding job instructions several times for even simple tasks to hold the attention of their workers. Advertisers while putting T.V. or radio advertisements repeat the brand name they are advertising.

Motion: The factor of motion implies that the individuals attend to changing objects in their field of vision than to static objects. It is because of this advantage that advertisers involve signs, which include moving objects in their campaigns. At an unconscious level the animals in the jungles make use of this principle. A tiger lying in wait is motionless until his prey is nearer him and then jumps at an appropriate moment.

Novelty and familiarity: A novel object in the familiar situation or a familiar object in a novel situation tends to attract attention. Thus a white person or a black person in India catches attention faster. Job rotation is an example of this principle. Recent research indicates that job rotation not only increased attention but also employees' acquisition of new skills.

43. How does the process of perceptual organisation help us to evolve the concept of "wholeness"? Elaborate.

Perceptual organization is the process by which people group environment stimuli into recognizable patterns. Everything we see, we see for the first time. While parts of a scene may correspond to objects we have some previous acquaintance with, we almost never see the same objects in the same configuration under the same lighting conditions from the same perspective.

Unless we can decompose a scene into coherent and independently recognizable entities, the complexity of natural scenes would render humantype vision impossible. How can we partition a scene into independent components without already knowing without what might be present? There are probably thousands of objects that can appear in an almost infinite variety of configurations and orientations that we can recognize, exhaustive matching against stored models is not a reasonable explanation of human perception.

44. How do judgemental and perceptual errors affect the process of interpretation? How can they be overcome?

In perceiving the stimuli in our environment, people are likely to make so many errors and ended up with poor results. Some of those errors are stereotyping, halo effects, selective perception, distortions, attributions, projections etc. Each of these errors is dysfunctional for good decision making and management. Since subjective emotions,

judgmental attitudes, and distortion of facts are common in perceiving any situation, we have tried to identify ways in which we can minimize perceptual biases. The need for managers to accurately perceive the environment and how manages can sharpen their perceptual skill are vital in enhancing perceptual skills.

People tend to follow a number of shortcut methods when observing others and making judgment of others activities. These techniques are to some extent valuable and allow us to make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for making predictions. However, they are not foolproof. However, people often rely on them and follow them blindly. They can get us into trouble, particularly if you happen to hold higher level position and required to make effective decision making. An understanding of this shortcut can be helpful in recognizing when they can result in significant distortions.

45. What do you think about the idea of impression management? What strategies do students adopt in the classroom to create a favourable impression?

Impression management is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of others. Impression management is performed by controlling or shaping information in social interactions. It is usually synonymous with self-presentation, in which a person tries to influence how others perceive their image. Impression management is used by communications and public relations professionals to shape an organization’s public image.

While impression management and self-presentation are often used interchangeably, some argue that they are not the same. In particular, Schlenker believed that self-presentation should be used to describe attempts to control “self-relevant” images projected in “real or imagined social interactions.” This was because people manage impressions of entities other than themselves, such as businesses, cities, and other individuals.

46. State the equation given by Vroom for deriving the motivation level.

The expectancy theory of motivation provides an explanation as to why an individual chooses to act out a specific behavior as opposed to another. This cognitive process evaluates the motivational force (MF) of the different behavioral options based on the individual's own perception of the probability of attaining his desired outcome. Thus, the motivational force can be summarized by the following equation:

MF = Expectancy X Instrumentality X ∑ (Valence(s))

Expectancy (E)

Expectancy refers to the "effort-performance" relation. Thus, the perception of the individual is that the effort that he or she will put forward will actually result in the attainment of the "performance". This cognitive evaluation is heavily weighted by an individual's past

experiences, personality, self-confidence and emotional state.

The Instrumentality (I)

Instrumentality refers to the "performance-reward" relation. The individual evaluates the likelihood or probability that achieving the performance level will actually result in the attainment of the reward.

Valence (V)

Valence is the value that the individual associates with the outcome (reward). A positive valance indicates that the individual has a preference for getting the reward as opposed to, vice-versa, a negative valance that is indicative that the individual, based on his perception evaluated that the reward doesn't fill a need or personal goal, thus he or she doesn't place any value towards its attainment.

47. What is instrumentality?

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as.

Instrumentality refers to the "performance-reward" relation. The individual evaluates the likelihood or probability that achieving the performance level will actually result in the attainment of the reward.

48. What are hygiene factors?

Organizational policies and procedures, supervision, relationships with co-workers and supervisors, physical work environment, job security, and compensation. It is part of Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory.

49. State any two assumptions of Theory Y.

Theory Y managers believe that their employees/workers are self-directed, highly motivated, committed, highly skilled and capable of exercise their efforts in an inherent manner in order to achieve the individual and organizational objectives. Theory Y managers assume that control and supervision are not necessary for these people to meet their own objectives and organizational objectives.

50. What is expectancy?

Expectancy theory is about work motivation that focuses on how workers make choices among alternative behaviours and level of efforts. Expectancy theory focuses on how workers decide which specific behaviours to perform and how much effort to exert.

51. Define motivation.

Motivation can be described as the internal force that impacts the direction, intensity, and endurance of a person’s voluntary choice of behavior. It consists of −

·      Direction − focused by goals.

·      Intensity − bulk of effort allocated.

·      Persistence − amount of time taken for the effort to be exerted.

Example − A team leader encourages team members to work efficiently.

52. When does the value of expectancy become one?

Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance

(P) goals. If the complete effort of the person results in the performance expected by the manager, his expectancy will become one.

53. What are existence needs? Give examples.

The existence needs are concerned with providing the basic material existence requirements of humans. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs.

54. What are social needs? Give examples.

The third stage in Maslow's hierarchy of needs is thesocial stage (also known as the love and belonging stage), which includes interpersonal relationships. The social stage is not based on basic needs but instead on psychological or emotionalneeds.

55. What are drives?

A drive is an "excitatory state produced by a homeostatic disturbance", an instinctual need that has the power of driving the behaviour of an individual

56.   List the content theories of motivation.

·       Maslow – hierarchy of needs.

·       Alderfer – ERG theory: Existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs.

·       McClelland – Need for achievement, affiliation and power.

·       Herzberg – Two factor theory.

·       Skinner's reinforcement theory.

57.   What do you mean by the expectancy model of motivation?

Expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.

Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:

Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time) Having the right skills to do the job

Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct information on the job)

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as:

Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g. the rules of the reward 'game'

Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.

58. What are growth needs? Give examples.

A growth need is part of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which are called self-actualization needs. These needs falls on the highest level of Maslow’s pyramid. Growth needs do not come from a place of “lack”. These needs come from a place of growth.

In order to reach full and healthy workplace motivation, leaders need to understand the basic tenets of human motivation.

59. What is self actualization? Give examples.

Self-actualization refers to the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always 'becoming' and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to them.

Self-Actualization needs example - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

60. What are motives?

ANS: Motives are a state of physiological and psychological arousal that dictates the way we behave. Motives are the intervining variable between stimulus and response

Example- Hunger/Thirst (Physiological) or feeling lonely (Psychological).

61.   State any two assumptions of Theory X. ANS: Two assumptions of theory X are

·       Employees dislike their work .

·       Need to be supervised every step.

62.   What is valence?

ANS: Valence is one of the main factors relating to motivation according to the expectancy theory. According to this theory Force = Valence x Instrumentality x Expectancy. According to this theory if an individual has low Valence then it means the individual is not bothered about the outcome, therefore meaning that work dosen’t need to be put in.

63. What are relatedness needs? Give examples.

In ERG(Existence,Relatedness,Growth) theory of Motivation developed by Clayton P. Alderfer, relatedness needs equates to the social and external esteem needs such as relationships or involvement with friends, family, and co-workers.Example: the need for an individual to be recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family.

64. What are motivator factors according to Herzberg?

The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory),

Motivators are that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth,(e.g. challenging work, recognition for one's achievement, responsibility, opportunity to do something meaningful, involvement in decision making, sense of importance to an organization).

66. What are esteem needs? Give examples.

Ans. Esteem needs refer to the need for respect, self-esteem, and self-confidence. Esteem needs are the basis for the human desire we all have to be accepted and valued by others.eg. performance appraisal, incentives, verbal compliments, leadership scoring are few of the examples which help in boosting the self-esteem of an individual

67. When does the value of expectancy become zero?

Ans. The value of expectancy will become zero due to cases of past experiences, low self confidence , low self esteem. These feelings lead to a negative outlook towards situation and the expectancy of a positive of a positive outcome becomes zero.

68. What are the basic components of motivational process?

Motivation is built on three basic elements:

1.     Motivation starts with a need, vision, dream or desire to achieve the seemingly impossible. Creativity is associated with ideas, projects and goals, which can be considered a path to freedom.

2.     Develop a love-to-learn, become involved with risky ventures and continually seek new opportunities. Success is based on learning what works and does not work.

3.     Developing the ability to overcome barriers and to bounce back from discouragement or failure. Achievers learn to tolerate the agony of failure. In any worthwhile endeavor, barriers and failure will be there. Bouncing back requires creative thinking as it is a learning process. In addition, bouncing back requires starting again at square one.

69.  Is there a linkage between motivation and performance? Justify.

Managers in business organizations face challenges of having to manage motivational factors of their employees by satisfying their personal and career needs in order to enhance their job performance (Alonso and Lewis, 2001). Indeed, most researchers found that many firms in the world focus on performance of the employees and incentives that can contribute toward their performance and their operations’ productivity (Brewer and Selden, 2000).Employee’s performance can increase organizational productivity by varying the inputs needed to attain their expected outputs. However, there are many factors, which affect organizational productivity other than employee performance. Akerlof and Kranton (2010) reported that many organisations would be successful in their goals and purposes if they understand the identity economics. People's identity that is their conception of who they are, and of who they choose to be, may be the most important factor affecting their economic lives and may indicate what would be the most appropriate incentives for them to perform in their job. There seems to be evidence to confirm the positive relationship between financial factors and job performance in service organizations. Money is the fundamental inducement; no other incentive or motivational technique comes even close to it with respect to its influential value. All businesses use pay, promotion, bonuses or other types of rewards to motivate and encourage high-level performances of employees. It has the supremacy to magnetize, maintain and motivate individuals towards higher performance.

70. What are the characteristics of an individual with high achievement needs? Characteristics of individuals with high achievement motivation include an orientation

toward problem-solving and moderate challenges, according to theorists like John Murray, David C. McClelland and John Atkinson. These individuals also place a high emphasis on accomplishment and success.

Moderate Challenge

Individuals with high achievement motivation prefer tasks and problems that involve moderate levels of difficulty. Usually, these individuals gravitate toward challenging but achievable goals where their abilities and efforts can affect the outcome.

Personal Rewards

Instead of deriving motivation from the potential for rewards, individuals with high achievement motivation use rewards, such as professional recognition and financial gain, as a way to measure their accomplishments. These individuals place a higher value on a personal sense of achievement.

Relevant Feedback

Another characteristic of individuals with high achievement motivation is the desire for feedback. These individuals do not seek feedback about their own personal qualities but instead about the success of their efforts. Feedback serves as way to measure the effectiveness of their work.

Problem-Solving

Individuals with high achievement motivation also have a strong orientation toward problem-solving. They spend extensive time thinking about potential solutions to current problems, as well as actively considering and analyzing additional possibilities for improvement.

Interpersonal Skills

Due to their focus on achievement and accomplishment, individuals with high achievement motivation are often characterized by poor interpersonal skills as well. These individuals have a tendency to overemphasize results and have difficulty managing people effectively.

71. What are the characteristics of an individual with high power needs?

The need for power is defined as the desire to have an impact on or influence another person or situation. Those high in need for power have a strong concern for reputation and engage in activities that are highly visible and designed to garner prestige. For them, power needs to be of a direct and interpersonal nature, often legitimized by social systems. People high in need for power tend to have careers such as executives, teachers, journalists, and clergy—careers that afford one the ability to have influence over others. Often, the most successful managers and executives are characterized by a high need for power. Leaders who have high power motivation tend to create high morale in their subordinates, although they may not be generally liked by others (the need for power is negatively correlated with the need for affiliation).The degree to which individuals are more oriented to personal versus social power is contingent on their level of responsibility or activity inhibition. Those who have a high need for power and a high level of activity inhibition display more of the behavior associated with social power and fewer of the destructive tendencies characteristic of personal power.

72. What are the characteristics of an individual with high affiliation needs?

People with a high need for affiliation require warm interpersonal relationships and approval from those with whom they have regular contact. Having a strong bond with others make a person feel as if they are a part of something important that creates a powerful impact. People who place high emphasis on affiliation tend to be supportive team members, but may be less effective in leadership positions. A person who takes part in a group, whether it be a movement or project, create a push towards a sense of achievement and satisfaction for the individual and the whole.

73. What do process theories explain about motivation?

Answer: Process theories attempt to explain how behavior is energized, directed, sustained and stopped. The four major process theories include Reinforcement, Expectancy, Equity, and Goal setting. Reinforcement Theory. Most often linked with reinforcement theory is the work of B.F. Skinner.

74. What do content theories explain about motivation?

Answer : Content theory explains why human needs change with time. Content theory includes the work of David McClelland, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists as they attempted to explain why human needs change, but not how they change.

Content theories explain the specific factors that motivate behavior. None of these theories have been conclusively shown to be valid but they are helpful in providing a contextual framework for dealing with individual.

75. What flaws in Vroom's expectancy theory were highlighted by Porter & Lawler? One of the drawbacks of expectancy theory is that perceptions about effort,

performance and the value of rewards are difficult to quantify so comparisons between different choices or people using the expectancy theory framework may not be accurate. In addition, rewards may not necessarily be directly connected to effort and performance: in some companies rewards such as raises might be built into a contract or depend upon factors like education or specific job skills.

76. Bring out the points of similarities and dissimilarities between Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg's Two Factor theory of motivation. The similarities are as follow:

Both theories confer that a specific set of needs must be met in order to propiciate behavior, and maintain it. In Manslow's theory, it is through a Hierarchy of Needs. In Herzberg's theory it is through a 2 way paradigm in which two specific needs must be met and they are hygiene (basic physical and psychological needs) and motivation.

The main difference is that Maslow is more specific in terms of categorizing the areas of human need and includes less concrete areas such as emotions and other feelings. Herzberg is more specific in what physiological and concrete things must be present to produce motivation. Also, Herzberg's ultimate goal is for motivation to be the prevailing attitude among individuals (quite clearly a need for a good quality of life), while Maslow's main goal is for needs to be met in order for an individual to develop in a healthy mental and physical way.

77. It is relatively easy for a manager to manipulate extrinsic rewards. Suggest ways in which a manager could affect intrinsic satisfaction of employee.

Managerial positions often come with a higher pay scale than subordinate employees, but some people are not motivated by money to become a manager. The intrinsic motivation of added responsibility can be a strong inspiration for your more talented employees to become managers or team leaders. Responsibility brings the opportunity to be part of the management team that shapes the company's future and the ability to be remembered as a leader within the organization.

Intrinsic motivators consists of a lot of motivator empowerments, The first one to be discussed is self-esteem. It is the inner light that brightening freely no matter what is happening around the person. On the other hand, self-esteem can be considered as extrinsic motivator as well. for example, Some one can buy a Ferrari car for his pleasure or for showing off. contradicting with the Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, in the previous example the need was the same but the goal is different. it is important in work place because ; It defines life success, Choose of happiness, Set challenging goals and Maintain positive attitude.

Other examples of intrinsic motivators are; Progression ( The clearer career path the more motivated is the person) Ambition; ( Achievements should be utilized with the employee's Personality , which is the main player in person's ambitions, Commitment (Commitment cannot be taught - however, it can be inspired or supported); Integrity and Responsibility (every individual should ask the following question; are you the person you want to be? Maybe it’s time to redefine your workplace values, attitude and behavior for overall development and success.). the previous argument is supported by the Vrooms expectancy theory in how values lead to competencies that assist to reach the desired outcomes.

78. Bring out the points of similarities and dissimilarities between Alderfer ERG theory and Maslow's Need Hierarchy theory of motivation?

Ans: similarities are

1.     Both the theories were formulated to explain human motivation in influencing behavior .

2.     Both theories have needs arranged in certain hierarchy, lower needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top.

Dissimilarities are:

1.     In maslow’s thoery, needs have been classified and arranged into five levels whereas in erg needs have been classified and arranged into three levels.

2.     In maslow’s theory, needs are satisfied one at a time in progression manner from lower to higher needs whereas in erg several needs can be satisfied at one time despite of their level.

3.     Whereas the erg theory asserts that the order of the needs is different for different people, according to maslow, the order of the needs is universal.

4.     In the erg model, frustration -regression is allowed whereby one can regress to lower level needs that may be easier to achieve if they are unsuccessful in attaining higher level goals. There is no such provision in maslow’s theory since the needs are only achieved in a bottom to up trend.

79.   What are the additions made by Porter and Lawler's to the Vroom's Expectancy Theory of motivation?

Ans: Expectancy theory (or expectancy theory of motivation) proposes an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific

behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be.

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive theory of motivation, combining the various aspects that we have so far been discussing and using two additional variables in their model. Though built in large part on Vroom’s expectancy model. Porter and Lawler’s model is a more complete model of motivation. This model has been practically applied also in their study of managers. This is a multi variate model which explains the relationship that exists between job attitudes and job performance.

80. Explain the Maslow’s Need hierarchy theory.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" . According to him, there are five level needs:

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.

2.  Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

3.  Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4.  Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others.

5.  Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

81. Explain the organizational implications of Herzberg's two factor theory.

Ans: Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation also known as the two- factor theory is based on the principle that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction act independent to each other. At any workplace, some particular factors can be attributed to job satisfaction while other factors are responsible for job dissatisfaction. These job factors were classified by Herzberg into two broad categories, Hygiene Factors and Motivational Factors.

He laid down six important hygiene factor in terms of its importance as Company Policy, Supervision, Relationship with the Boss, Work Conditions, Salary and Relationship with peers.1 For instance, if the business had a very rigid and unaccommodating company policy it meant dissatisfaction whereas a company policy flexible enough to give breathing space did not cause dissatisfaction. Similarly, secure work conditions meant no dissatisfaction and dangerous and unsafe ones meant dissatisfaction

82. Explain McClelland's theory of motivation and its application in organisations. David McClelland was an American Psychologist who developed his theory of needs or achievement. Theory of Motivation which revolves around three important aspects, namely,

Achievement, Power and Affiliation. This theory was developed in the 1960’s and McClelland’s points out that regardless of our age, sex, race or culture, all of us possess one of these needs and are driven by it. This theory is also known as the Acquired Needs as McClelland put forth that the specific needs of an individual are acquired and shaped over

time through the experiences.

Need for Achievement : The need for achievement as the name itself suggests is the urge to achieve something in what you do. If you are a lawyer it is the need to win cases and be recognized, if you are a painter it is the need to paint a famous painting. It is the need that drives a person to work and even struggle for the objective that he wants to achieve. People who possess high achievement needs are people who always work to excel by particularly avoiding low reward low risk situations and difficult to achieve high risk situations.

Need for power

The need for power is the desire within a person to hold control and authority over another person and influence and change their decision in accordance with his own needs or desires. The need to enhance their self esteem and reputation drives these people and they desire their views and ideas to be accepted and implemented over the views and ideas over others. These people are strong leaders and can be best suited to leading positions. They either belong to Personal or Institutional power motivator groups. If they are a personal power motivator they would have the need to control others and a institutional power motivator seeks to lead and coordinate a team towards an end.

Need for Affiliation

The need for affiliation is urge of a person to have interpersonal and social relationships with others or a particular set of people. They seek to work in groups by creating friendly and lasting relationships and has the urge to be liked by others. They tend to like collaborating with others to competing with them and usually avoid high risk situations and uncertainty

83. Critically evaluate Maslow’s need hierarchy theory.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization and self-transcendence at the top. The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency needs" are not met – with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.

The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative", "general", and "primarily". Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain need "dominates" the human organism.^[4] Thus Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he focused

on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they should be met.

84. What do we mean by work motivation, and how does it relate to performance? Work motivation "is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as

beyond an individual's being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration" Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to the study

Work motivation and performance were analysed from the perspective of social identity theory and self-categorisation theory. Central in this analysis is the relation of organisational identification with the motivation to exert effort on behalf of the collective. A theoretical analysis as well as a review of empirical studies of the relationship of organisational identification with motivation and performance leads to the conclusion that identification is positively related to work motivation, task performance, and contextual performance to the extent that (a) social identity is salient, and (b) high performance is perceived to be in the group’s or organisation’s interest.

85. What are challenges managers face in motivating employees and how can they overcome them?

·       Motivation of employees becomes challenging especially when the organizations have considerably changed the job role of the employees, or have lessened the hierarchy levels of hierarchy, or have chucked out a significant number of employees in the name of down-sizing or right-sizing. Certain firms have chosen to hire and fire and paying for performance strategies nearly giving up motivational efforts. These strategies are unsuccessful in making an individual overreach himself.

·       The vigorous nature of needs also pose challenge to a manager in motivating his subordinates. This is because an employee at a certain point of time has diverse needs and expectations. Also, these needs and expectations keep on changing and might also clash with each other. For instance-the employees who spend extra time at work for meeting their needs for accomplishment might discover that the extra time spent by them clash with their social neds and with the need for affiliation.

86.   Write in detail the organizational implications of Vroom's Expectancy theory of motivation.

Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal needs and the resulting effort expended to fulfil them, Vroom's expectancy theory separates effort (which arises from motivation), performance, and outcomes.

Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.

Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:

Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time) Having the right skills to do the job

Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct

information on the job)

87. What are the key variables in expectancy theory? Give example how each the variables get operationalized to develop motivation among individual.

The expectancy theory of motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over the other. This theory explains that individuals can be motivated towards goals if they believe that; there is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, the outcome of a favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, a reward from a performance will satisfy an important need, and/or the outcome satisfies their need enough to make the effort worthwhile. Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).

Expectancy theory has three components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

1.     Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)

2.     Instrumentality: performance → outcome (P→O)

3.     Valence: V(R) outcome → reward

Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)

Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.

1.     Self efficacy – the person's belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired to achieve their goals.

2.     Goal difficulty – when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes that their desired results are unattainable.

3.     Perceived control – Individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to influence, expectancy, and thus motivation, is low.

Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)

Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given.

Another way that instrumental outcomes work is commissions. With commissions performance is directly correlated with outcome (how much money is made). If performance is high and many goods are sold the more money the person will make.

Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies:

·       Trusting the people who will decide who gets what outcome, based on the performance,

·       Control of how the decision is made, of who gets what outcome,

·       Policies understanding of the correlation between performance and outcomes.

Valence V(R)

Valence: the value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Influential factors include one's

values, needs, goals, preferences and sources that strengthen their motivation for a particular outcome.

Valence is characterized by the extent to which a person values a given outcome or reward. This is not an actual level of satisfaction rather the expected satisfaction of a particular outcome.

The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1

→0→ +1

-1= avoiding the outcome 0 = indifferent to the outcome +1 = welcomes the outcome

In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it.

Valence is one behavioral alternative, where the decision is measured on the value of the reward. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized:

Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF). Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions), whereas valence is rooted in an individual's value system.

Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay increases and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments, recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what their employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate employees in order to get the highest result and effectiveness out of the workplace.

88. Pawan argues," For every worker, there is one best motivational application to drive performance." Sana responds, "Nonsense! There is no single best way to motivate anyone." Who is correct? Explain.

It’s correct, there is no single way to motivate any worker. It all depends on the mindset of the worker & every worker has their own perspective about the motivation. There are many types of motivation theories.

Taylor's Theory of Scientifc Management

Frederick Taylor's theory of motivation states that most workers are motivated solely by the pay they receive for the work they do. He postulated that most workers do not enjoy the work they do and only perform when given the direct reward of monetary payment. His ideas were adopted by Henry Ford and other industrialists who paid their factory workers according to the number of items produced. This theory lost favor as workers became frustrated and production was frequently halted due to strikes by disgruntled employees.

Mayo's Theory of Human Relations

Elton Mayo's theory of motivation examined the social needs of the worker. He believed that pay alone was not sufficient to motivate employees to put forth their best effort. He believed that the social needs of the workers should be taken into consideration. He recommended employers treat their workers in a caring and humane fashion that demonstrates an interest in the individual in order to have them produce their best work.

Maslow and Herzberg's Theory of Human Needs

Abraham Maslow and Frederick Irving Herzberg believed that psychological forces drive human behavior. Their theory postulated a graduated scale of human needs ranging from basic, physical ones such as hunger and thirst to higher level ones such as the need to be loved and the need for self-fulfillment. They believed employers would see better results from workers if they recognized the various needs of individual workers and if they varied the rewards offered to them.

89. "There is a classical debate about the relationship between attitude and behaviour. Some people argue that attitude change must precede behavioural response, but other people believe that it is easier to change an employee's behaviour first and then let attitude change follow." Discuss

It again depends on the situation, there are cases both the conditions are applicable.

Attitudes can positively or negatively affect a person’s behavior. A person may not always be aware of his or her attitude or the effect it is having on behavior. A person who has positive attitudes towards work and co-workers (such as contentment, friendliness, etc.) can positively influence those around them. These positive attitudes are usually manifested in a person’s behavior; people with a good attitude are active and productive and do what they can to improve the mood of those around them.

In much the same way, a person who displays negative attitudes (such as discontentment, boredom, etc.), will behave accordingly. People with these types of attitudes towards work may likewise affect those around them and behave in a manner that reduces efficiency and effectiveness.

90. What are the situational variables in Path-Goal theory of leadership?

Situational or Contingency theory of leadership states that the behaviour should be contingent on the organisational situation at the time. There is not one leadership style or approach that is appropriate for every situation. It depends on the following variables: The manager, the subordinate, the situation. There are many different situational or contingency theories however the one that I will discuss here is Hersey and Blanchard (1993) theory. This theory says that the characteristics and expectations of the group members play a key part in deciding what style to use. It looks at the "readiness" of followers or team members.

This theory states that manager’s behaviours can fall into any one of 4 quadrants i.e. Telling,

Selling, Participating and Delegating. The leader matches the leadership style according to the readiness of the subordinates which move in stages along a continuum.

Readiness:

The ability and willingness subordinates have to completing tasks. Ability is defined as the knowledge, experience, and skill the person possess.

Willingness: The motivation and commitment required.

In other words, different situations determine where the best way to behave falls.

Based on the level of readiness, the leadership style should be a combination of task and

relationship behaviours:

Task Behaviour:

Communicating the duties and responsibilities of the team member including providing the direction, setting goals, defining roles.

Relationship Behaviour:

Involves listening to the team member and provides support and encouragement.

Other contingency or situational leadership theories that you may wish to read up on are

(i) Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership which says there are three situational variables to determine the style of leadership to be adopted:

·   Leader-member relations: support of group members; trust, respect that exist

·   Task structure: how well defined the task is and are the outcomes clear to denote as a success or failure

·   Position power: The amount of power the leader can use to accomplish goals and the support of higher management

and(ii) Path-Goal Theory which states that the leaders should use the style of leadership that is most effective in influencing subordinates’ perceptions of the goals they need to achieve and the way or path they need to achieve them. The dominant factors are:

·   The characteristics of the team or group members: what are their skills; motivation; locus of control; expectations

·   The nature of the task or job and the immediate context in which it takes place e.g. job design; goal clarity (simple or complex); resources (e.g. tools, materials, information); time available.

91. What are the two basic components of Michigan Studies?

Ans: The Michigan Model of Leadership is rooted in practice-oriented research by Ross faculty. It introduces a model of leadership that anyone can embrace, regardless of where they sit in an organizational hierarchy. Effective leaders in today's complex and dynamic world:

HAVE A CORE PURPOSE

·   commit to making a positive difference in the world

·   approach every day as an opportunity to have an impact

·   find higher purpose in their work

·   leverage purpose to mobilize their teams to greater energy and performance

·   create a legacy by leaving people, organizations, and society better off

EXHIBIT CORE VALUES

·   empathy, to see the world through others' eyes

·   drive, to set and achieve challenging goals

·   integrity, to do the right thing when no one is watching

·   courage, to take risks and make mistakes in service of innovation and creativity

TAKE ACTION

·   develop collaborative communities

·   deliver robust results

·   build strategic structures

·   lead creative change

·

92.Who are Persuasive leaders? Give examples.

Ans: Persuasive Leadership or Leaders, by definition, must effectively influence change, improvement, innovation and performance. Their task is to create positive, sustainable performance environments – often in the face of challenge, an unacceptable status quo or a window of opportunity

93. Who are transformational leaders? Give examples.

Transformational leaders are similar to charismatic leaders. They are distinguished by their special ability to bring about innovation and change by:

·       Recognizing followers’ needs and concerns

·       Helping them look at old problems in new ways

·       Encouraging them to question the status quo

94. What is impoverished management?

Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership.

95. Who are Consultative Leaders?

Consultative leaders focus on using the skills, experiences, and ideas of others. However, the leader or manager using this style still retains the final decision-making power. To his or her credit, they will not make major decisions without first getting the input from those that will be affected.

96. Who is an autocratic leader? Give example.

Autocratic leadership is a management style wherein one person controls all the decisions and take very little inputs from other group members. Autocratic leaders make choices or decisions based on their own beliefs and do not involve others for their suggestion or advice.

Example – Adolf Hitler, Napolean Bonparte

97. Which leadership style is suitable for subordinate having internal locus of control?

Internal locus of control suggests - the belief that events in one’s life, whether good or bad, are caused by controllable factors such as one’s attitude, preparation, and effort.

A subordinate having Internal LOC, will prefer a democratic leader, who lets him/her participate in decision making, having a sense of control over such decisions.

98. Who are democratic leaders?

Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, is a type of leadership style in which members of the group take a more participative role in the decision-making process. Everyone is given the opportunity to participate, ideas are exchanged freely, and discussion is encouraged. While the democratic process tends to focus on group equality and the free flow of ideas, the lead of the group is still there to offer guidance and control.

Define Leadership.

Ans: Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide followers or other members of an organization.

Leadership involves making sound (and sometimes difficult) decisions, creating and articulating a clear vision, establishing achievable goals and providing followers with the knowledge and tools necessary to achieve these goals.

100. In what situations, autocratic leadership style shall be appropriate?

Ans: An autocratic leadership style where the leader has complete authority and reserves the right to make decisions, and where the followers obey the instructions of the leader without question, remains ideally suited for workers with a Theory X type of orientation.

Based on the nature of the workforce, examples of when to use autocratic leadership style remains most suitable during the following situations:

1.                  People with low motivation or achievement-orientation tend to work as little as possible, and when working in a group, tend to pass on work to others. An autocratic leader who assigns clear and precise responsibilities ensures that such workers work their share.

2.                    Many people working in a group lack the inclination to understand the intricacies of the project, and feel reluctant to take up responsibility if things go wrong. Collective or participative decision-making in such cases tends to delay progress. An autocratic leader empowered to make decisions and assign tasks and deliverables to the team members helps to keep the project on schedule.

3.                  When the project team consists entirely of new or inexperienced team members unfamiliar with their role, autocratic leadership remains the best approach to get work done without wasting time for the team members or to learn by trial and error.

4.                  Autocratic Leadership styles suit most blue-collared workers, especially those doing unskilled jobs who lack the qualifications, skills, or talent to respond to any participative leadership styles, or have low motivation, or require achievement acceptance to perform.

101.                          List the leadership styles suggested in situational theory.

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Leadership Model:

The Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decision-making Model of Leadership focuses upon decision making as how successful leadership emerges and progresses. The parameters shaping a decision are quality, commitment of group or organization members, and time restrictions. There are a number of leadership styles ranging from authoritarian to highly participatory.

Fiedler's Contingency Theory

Fiedler's contingency theory is one of the contingency theories that states that effective leadership depends not only on the style of leading but on the control over a situation. There needs to be good leader-member relations, task with clear goals and procedures, and the ability for the leader to mete out rewards and punishments. Lacking these three in the right combination and context will result in leadership failure.

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory

For Hershey and Blanchard, tasks are different and each type of task requires a different leadership style. A good leader will be able to adapt her or his leadership to the goals or objectives to be accomplished. Goal setting, capacity to assume responsibility, education, and experience are main factors that make a leader successful. Not only is the leadership style important for a successful leader-led situation but the ability or maturity of those being led is a critical factor, as well. Leadership techniques fall out of the leader pairing her or his leadership style to the maturity level of the group.

Path-Goal Leadership Model

The Path-Goal model is a theory based on specifying a leader's style or behavior that best fits the employee and work environment in order to achieve a goal (House, Mitchell, 1974). The goal is to increase your employees' motivation, empowerment, and satisfaction so they become productive members of the organization.

102.                          List the leadership styles suggested in managerial grid.

103.                          List the leadership styles suggested in Path-Goal theory.

There are various leadership styles associated with Path-Goal                                                                                                                     theory:

·       Achievement-oriented leadership.

·       Directive leadership.

·       Participative leadership.

·       Supportive leadership.

104. What is the situational variable in Hersey & Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model?

Situational Leadership Theory is really the short form for "Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory" and draws major views from contingency thinking. As the name implies, leadership depends upon each individual situation, and no single leadership style can be considered the best. For Hershey and Blanchard, tasks are different and each type of task requires a different leadership style. A good leader will be able to adapt her or his leadership to the goals or objectives to be accomplished. Goal setting, capacity to assume responsibility, education, and experience are main factors that make a leader successful. Not only is the leadership style important for a successful leader-led situation but the ability or maturity of those being led is a critical factor, as well.

105.                          In what situation, should the leader adopt delegating style?

1. Provide the whole task to be done.

The management should ensure that the delegated person have understood everything about the task given to him or her. If possible, allow that person to get involve in the management and planning of the job. It will be more effective if members contribute to the fulfilment of the job as they often see the big picture.

2. Allow subordinates to do research.

It will be a lot productive for the team to allow the one delegated by the leader to do some research, answer questions, and create reports afterwards that can be used for decision making. This will enable the person to provide a report with feeling of flexibility.

3. Delegate responsibility for decision making.

It is the option of the management to allow someone to make the decision for them. However, it is the final say of the manager that still matters most. This will give the person delegated with authority to decide but it remains the prerogative of the manager to make the final say.

4. Delegating authority unless management interferes.

Another example is to authorize people and make him or her feel that all is well until the management intervenes.

5. Full delegation of authority.

It will authorize subordinates to complete the job as they see fit. However, the management can put itself at risk when things aren’t properly handled. Effective delegation can be practiced to build teamwork, motivates to handle situations, and to step up to new responsibilities when they get in charge.

106.                          In what situation, should the leader adopt telling style?

Telling and Directing

There are four leadership behaviors needed from a leader under the situational leadership method. Examples of situational leadership can be based on these leadership behaviors. One is telling and directing, wherein the leader defines the tasks of his subordinates and closely supervises them. This is particularly true for inexperienced or first-time employees who need to be closely supervised by an experienced leader. This leadership style is particularly effective for subordinates who lack the competence but committed to achieving his or her roles. First-time employees in particular need to be told and directed by their supervisors for them to learn the rules of the trade.

107.                          In what situation, should the leader adopt selling style?

Selling and Coaching

In this leadership behavior, a leader still defines and assigns roles and tasks but he or she is more receptive in getting ideas and suggestions from the subordinates. The leader still have the prerogative in making decisions, but in this set-up the communication process is no longer one-sided. This type of leadership style is more suited for less experienced subordinates who still need guidance and supervision by their supervisors. This leadership style also helps in developing subordinates who may have the experience yet still lacking self-esteem in the performance of their work. Under this set-up, leaders may also follow closely the output of their subordinates and give them encouraging remarks in order for them to develop their self-confidence.

108.                          In what situation, should the leader adopt participating style?

Participative leadership tends to work best when you aren’t making decisions ‘under fire’. This makes sense considering gathering everyone together for strategy meetings can be a time consuming event. If something happens that requires a quick response, participative leadership would not be the best style to follow in most cases.

This type of leadership works really well in creative environments, too. Consider the multitude of unique ideas that might arise during a meeting for a solution to a problem that requires different perspectives.

Additionally, participative leadership is great when you may want to find more than one solution to a problem, as in the example above with the product that isn’t selling. The problem you have might require a set of solutions, and not just one overall solution. Involving a team of problem solvers can help create a list of potential fixes.

109. Which leadership style is suitable for subordinate having external locus of control?

Directive Leadership Style

110. Which leadership style is suitable for subordinate having high need for affiliation?

Supportive Leadership Style

111. Which leadership style is suitable for subordinate working in a very structured work environment with clearly defined goals?

DEMOCRATIC

112. Which leadership style is suitable for subordinate working in very unstructured work environment?

AUTOCRATIC

113. Bring out the similarities and dissimilarities between Situational Model and Path-Goal leadership theories.

The situational leadership model offers specific suggestions on how leaders should adapt to different situations. First, they should prioritize the tasks. Second, they should assess employee skill and motivation. Third, they should decide on the leadership style -- directing, coaching, supporting or observing -- that best fits the situation. Leaders may have to use a combination of these styles to deal with different group members. The path-goal theory suggests that leaders consider their employees' skills before assigning responsibilities, convince employees of their abilities to perform the assigned tasks and reward those who exceed expectations.

114.                          Differentiate managers from leaders with examples.

Answer: The main difference between leaders and managers is that leaders have people follow them while managers have people who work for them.

^ž    Leaders are concerned with doing the right thing, while managers are concerned with doing things right. Managers are more concerned with means, how to get things done, while leaders are more concerned with ends, what gets done.

^ž    Leaders focus on visions, missions, goals, and objectives, while managers focus solely on productivity and efficiency.

^ž    Managers see themselves as preservers of the status quo, while leaders see themselves as promoters of change, as challengers of the status quo in that they encourage creativity and risk taking.

^ž    Managers are concerned with control and limiting the choices of others, while leaders are more concerned with expanding peoples' choices and options.

^ž    Finally, managers solve problems so that others can do their work, while leaders and managers inspire and motivate others to find their own solutions.

While leaders are different from managers, in practice, organizations need them both. Managers are critical to getting out the day-to-day work and leaders are critical to inspiring employees and setting the organization's long-term direction. The key issue is the extent to which organizations are properly led or properly managed.

115.                          "Leadership is situational." Comment.

The fundamental underpinning of the Situational Leadership Model is that there is no single "best" style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most successful leaders are those who adapt their leadership style to the Performance Readiness (ability and willingness) of the individual or group they are attempting to lead or influence. Effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is being influenced, but it also depends on the task, job or function that needs to be accomplished.

The Situational Leadership Model rests on two fundamental concepts; leadership style and the individual or group's Performance Readiness level.

116. Does it make any sense to change a person's leadership style or the situation? Discuss.

Yes the style of the leadership can be changed according to the situation involved in that place at that particular time. It is not good to change the situation for the leadership. For example: if there is a chaos in a hotel the manager should change his style of leadership and work accordingly as he cannot change the situation.

117. Discuss the characteristics of a good leader. The characteristics of a good leader are:

1. Honesty

Always be honest with employees or team members.

Being open and truthful with those underneath the leadership level will help the employees to know where they stand.

When it comes to honesty, keeping a certain standard will open the door for everyone in the office to uphold the same values of being open and honest as well.

2. Communication

A true leader must be able to express their vision to others.

What may be perfectly clear in your mind, may not be relayed clearly to other members of the team. This communication must be clear and concise so that everyone shares the same goals.

3. Ability to Delegate

In a team environment, a leader does not have to take on all of the tasks required to complete a project alone.

It is important that a good leader knows the strengths and the weaknesses of each of the members of the team. Utilizing these strengths will allow everyone to grow and the team as a whole will flourish. Team members will feel appreciated when they are trusted to do additional tasks, and this will bring up the morale of the team as a whole.

Delegating tasks will also free up time to complete managerial tasks that cannot be delegated to others.

4. Confidence

Confidence is a leadership aspect that can keep your team morale and productivity up. Being confident of the situation at hand and the way it will be handled can help team members to solve any problem.

Employees will take cues from the leadership, so anyone in that position must have faith in themselves to be able to handle any situation. People want a leader who knows every solution, or at least one who is confident enough to say that they do not. There is nothing wrong with admitting a lack of knowledge as long as a leader has the confidence they can find the correct information.

5. Commitment

A great leader will show commitment to their brand or cause.

Lead by example and a good work ethic will be formed amongst every one of the team members. Always keep promises or commitments made to the team, whether it is a yearly work picnic or casual Friday. Staying true to these commitments will encourage the team to work harder to fulfill their obligations as well.

6. Positive Attitude

The energy levels of the workplace start with those who have a leadership role possessing a positive attitude.

Everyone on the team is a person with emotions that can affect their outlook, but striving to exhibit a positive attitude can motivate others to do the same. Consider offering snacks or coffee to the employees to add a bit of cheer to the work environment.

A person who is cheerful and positive is often more likely to put forth their best effort, even if it requires them to stay an extra hour or two to complete the project at hand.

7. Intuition

As a leader, daily tasks often become something that can be easily achieved as a team, but what about when new scenarios arise?

Taking a team through uncharted waters can give a leader a feeling of uncertainty, when there is no map or guidance for discovering the unexplored territory. It is a leader’s responsibility to guide the members of the team through the unfamiliar situation by drawing on past experience and relying on intuition to make decisions that will help the team to be successful. Trusting yourself will help determine what to do when a tough decision needs to be made.

8. Creativity

Decisions that a good leader needs to make are not always simple, cut and dry choices. Sometimes a situation only has two seemingly bad choices. Having a creative side can often allow exploration into areas that were not considered, which can transform a bad solution into a much better option. If creativity is a strong point of certain members of the team, bring them in on a brainstorming session that can get the entire team thinking outside the box while striving to reach the finish line.

118. How would a manager know which variables in a given situation influence the approach to leadership that needs to be taken?

Oneself

Understand your abilities. Your staff observes you, and how you handle yourself affects their acceptance of your leadership as much or more than anything you say. Effective leaders are trusted for their knowledge and competence, so don`t over-reach or claim false expertise. Be true to your personal style. Forcing an outgoing persona when you have a reserved nature rings false. Conduct yourself in a way your staff can trust and respect.

Employees

The type of work or service you do may attract different types of employees. For example, information technology businesses may attract younger workers who thrive in a collaborative environment. This work style is open, with tasks spread across several employees. With a horizontal flow of ideas, a leader may rely more on two-way communication than in an office with staff working independently in cubicles. How closely you work with employees affects your interactive style.

Type of Business

Your company`s type of work influences how you can integrate leadership. A business in crisis, or one that must respond quickly to changing markets, requires you to be decisive and able to communicate decisions effectively in a top-down way. If your company practices continuous improvement methods such as lean and Kaizen, decisions and communications are more lateral. In practice, businesses experience a combination of these conditions, so you may move between styles as situations change.

Communication

Flow of information is at the core of effective leadership. While the conditions and styles of communication change, the need to express yourself clearly in all situations remains. Regular meetings may be difficult to implement in high-productivity manufacturing situations, and they may be essential in collaborative workplaces. Likewise, written and verbal communications have appropriate places. Avoid at all costs situations in which your employees feel that they have no information. This appears as abandonment of leadership.

119. Discuss the importance of leadership in an organization. Providing Guidance

Leaders offer guidance to all members of the team to ensure they are fulfilling their roles. Guidance can include training and instructing team members and taking corrective or even punitive actions when necessary. Guidance also involves responding to questions and resolving problems that can hinder job performance. When new direction is given by business ownership, team leaders make sure that team members understand the information and how it impacts their specific roles.

Building Morale

Effective team leaders ensure that team morale remains high and that workers are motivated to perform well. Leaders can impact morale by helping to instill a sense of confidence and trust in workers so that they take a positive approach to their jobs and the company as a whole. Leaders can also affect morale by creating an environment of cooperation between team members so that they work together to achieve team objectives instead of only fulfilling individual goals.

Fostering Creativity

A team leader can foster an atmosphere of creativity that can lead to innovation. For example, when telling an employee what needs to be done, the team leader can offer the flexibility to allow the employee to determine the methods used to complete the task, within reason. By doing so, the employee may develop an effective new process that benefits the team as a whole, while giving her a sense of empowerment from making her own decisions.

Promoting Values

Team leaders can promote essential values that are crucial to the success of an organization. A team leader who exhibits honesty and integrity in all his activities, for instance, can serve as a role model for team members to ensure that they will act in a similar fashion. A team leader who admits a mistake and takes ownership of the situation can demonstrate the importance of acting with accountability to the rest of the team.

120. According to situational model of leadership, which style is likely to be the most effective for leading a strongly motivated group of e-commerce specialists

The Situational Leadership Model is a model developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, while working on Management of Organizational Behavior. Supporting style of leadership is best suited for e-commerce specialists

123. "A good leader helps his subordinates solve problems by themselves”. Elaborate the statement in relation to any of the leadership theories.

Ans. Leadership may be defined as: the influence that particular individuals (leaders) exert upon the goal achievement of others (subordinates) in an organizational context. An earlier unit on Board Governance addresses in a limited way, the impacts of leaders on performance. We stated that leaders have an ability to see how different aspects of a situation fit together and influence each other. They seek out alliances, opportunities, and approach goals in a proactive way. They have a positive effect on others, which attracts support from those who have similar needs for accomplishment. Their self confidence creates a belief in other people’s abilities, therefore, emphasis is placed on empowerment and freedom. If we agree with these statements, then leadership has two distinct aspects: i) the individual who exerts influence, and ii) those who are the objects of this influence. Successful leadership depends, to a large extent, on the environment and situation in which these dynamics exist. There are other issues that must also be acknowledged. There are two types of leaders: emergent leaders - those who earn leadership positions through their expertise, skills, abilities to influence others, or personal acceptability by the group; and assigned leaders - those who are given power to exercise influence through appointment. In general terms, both emergent and assigned leaders fulfill two different functions. They must be able to provide social and emotional support to the group by listening, acknowledging, team building, and supporting other members in the group. This is referred to as social-emotional support. The second factor is to provide direction and assistance to the group in accomplishing their tasks. Successful leaders have the ability to identify and apply the appropriate strategy at the right time. A group that is confused about the goals of the organization, for example, will not respond well to a social-emotional approach, nor will a group that is experiencing internal conflict and in need of team building skills respond very positively to a request to improve individual performance.

124. How does a transformational leader bring about change? What personal behaviours help the transformation process?

Ans. Transformational leadership is a style of leadership where a leader works with subordinates to identify needed change, creating a vision to guide the change through inspiration, and executing the change in tandem with committed members of a group.^[1] Transformational leadership serves to enhance the motivation, morale, and job performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms; these include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to a project and to the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers in order to inspire them and to raise their interest in the project; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, allowing the leader to align followers with tasks that enhance their performance.

Personal behaviors which help the process are: Extraversion

Neuroticism

Openness to experience Agreeableness conscientiousness

Shibani :

125. "Path-Goal leadership theory has its roots in the expectancy theory of motivation." Elaborate.

Ans: The path–goal theory is a leadership theory developed by Robert House, in 1971 and revised in 1996. The theory states that a leader's behavior is contingent to the satisfaction, motivation and performance of her or his subordinates. The revised version also argues that the leader engages in behaviors that complement subordinate's abilities and compensate for deficiencies.

The expectancy theory of motivation proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome.

126. How do transformational and transactional leaders differ? What kind of results can be expected from each type of leader?

Ans: Transformational leadership inspires people to achieve unexpected or remarkable results. It gives workers autonomy over specific jobs, as well as the authority to make decisions once they have been trained.Whereas, Transactional leaders are someone who values order and structure. They are likely to command military operations, manage large corporations, or lead international projects that require rules and regulations to complete objectives on time or move people and supplies in an organized way. Transactional leaders are not a good fit for places where creativity and innovative ideas are valued. Transactional leadership depends on self-motivated people who work well in a structured, directed environment. By contrast, transformational leadership seeks to motivate and inspire workers, choosing to influence rather than direct others.

127. Considering the findings from the Michigan and Ohio state studies, what do you think is the most effective leadership style? Give reasons to support your choice.

Ans: According to the Michigan and Ohio state studies , there were two broad leadership styles that were identified : employee oriented and production oriented.

I think the employee oriented leadership style would prove to be most effective as employees enjoy a certain amount of freedom and say in their respective companies.This will not only led to greater productivity but will also enhance job satisfaction . General overall supervision and giving employees the freedom to be their own boss rather than close and strict supervision yields better results. A satisfied employee is far more productive and an asset to a company than an employee who is dissatisfied with their work environment.

128. How does a leader differ from a manager? What would be several practical problems stemming from the idea that leaders create vision, whereas the manager implements it?

The main difference between leaders and managers is that leaders have people follow them while managers have people who work for them. A successful business owner needs to be both a strong leader and manager to get their team on board to follow them towards their vision of success.

Leaders take people forward whereas managers delegate the same.

The difference between managers and leaders, lie in the conceptions they hold, deep in their psyches, of chaos and order. Managers embrace process, seek stability and control, and instinctively try to resolve problems quickly—sometimes before they fully understand a problem’s significance. Leaders, in contrast, tolerate chaos and lack of structure and are willing to delay closure in order to understand the issues more fully.

business leaders have much more in common with artists, scientists, and other creative thinkers than they do with managers. Organizations need both managers and leaders to succeed, but developing both requires a reduced focus on logic and strategic exercises in favor of an environment where creativity and imagination are permitted to flourish.

129. Compare and contrast charismatic and transformational leadership. Ans

Charismatic leadership and Transformational leadership are two important classifications of leadership between which a key difference can be identified.

The key difference is that while in Charismatic Leadership the leader’s charm and attraction create inspiration and devotion among the followers towards the leader, in Transformational Leadership, change in individuals and social systems are created through a collective vision.

Charismatic leaders have a clear vision and are willing to take any risk achieve their vision. They exhibit out of ordinary behaviors and are very sensitive to followers’ emotions. They will create a unique position for themselves and will be unchallengeable in their group. Their team or group will be known by their leader’s name. Transformational leaders pay attention to the well-being of their individual followers. They engage with them and communicate with them on personal issues which persuade followers to feel positive and partner in the organization’s success.

130. What is storming in the process of group development? ANS-

There are five stages in the process of group development, they are Forming, Storming, Norming , Performing and Adjourning.

IN Storming the team moves into the storming phase, where people start to push against the boundaries established in the forming stage. This is the stage where many teams fail.

Storming often starts where there is a conflict between team members' natural working styles. People may work in different ways for all sorts of reasons but, if differing working styles cause unforeseen problems, they may become frustrated.

Storming can also happen in other situations. For example, team members may challenge your authority, or jockey for position as their roles are clarified. Or, if you haven't defined clearly how the team will work, people may feel overwhelmed by their workload, or they could be uncomfortable with the approach you're using.

Some may question the worth of the team's goal, and they may resist taking on tasks.

Team members who stick with the task at hand may experience stress, particularly as they don't have the support of established processes or strong relationships with their colleagues.

131.                          State the functions of group norms.

A group’s culture, including its norms and patterns of behavior, is formed through the process of structuration, or how the verbal and nonverbal interaction among members both creates and maintains the group. Structuration processes apply to face-to-face interaction, as well as to groups appropriating computer technology.

1.     All groups must find ways to deal with their primary (interpersonal) and secondary (task-related) tensions.

2.     Groups develop in stages, typically moving from the formation stage to the production stage, but members always need to deal simultaneously with socioemotional and task concerns, at all stages.

3.     Group socialization of new and/or established members and the group is a complex process of learning how to fit together. Effective communication is important to socialization, and effective socialization influences other group processes, such as norms and roles. Socialization involves antecedent, anticipatory, encounter, assimilation, and exit phases.

4.     Whereas formal rules may exist to govern some of the group’s interaction, informal rules (norms) that guide members’ behaviors evolve—sometimes unconsciously— with the tacit approval of the members themselves. This holds true with some modification in groups using computer-mediated communication.

5.     With their personal behaviors and skills, group members carve out roles in conjunction with other group members.

6.     All groups need both task and maintenance functions to be performed; self-oriented roles detract from the group’s purpose.

7.     Effective management of role structure is relevant to within-group processes, as well as intergroup processes.

132.           State           any            two            sources            of                    group          cohesiveness.

Ans:

Task commitment

Cohesion comes from group members' commitment to work together to complete their shared tasks and accomplish their collective tasks or goals. Members of task-oriented groups typically exhibit great interdependent and often possess feelings of responsibility for the group's outcomes. The bonds of unity that develop from members' concerted effort to achieve their common goals are considered indicative of group cohesion. The commitment to the task had a significant and positive relationship with performance, while group attractiveness and group pride were not significantly related to performance.

Group pride Group cohesion results from a deep sense of "we-ness", or belonging to a group as a whole. By becoming enthusiastically involved in the efforts of the group and by recognizing the similarities that exist among group members, more cohesion is formed. Furthermore, group pride creates a sense of community that strengthens the bonds of unity that link group members to one another.

133.                          What is a virtual team?

Ans: A virtual Team refers to a group of individuals who work together from different geographic locations, who depend on technology for communication like Email, FAX, video/voice conferencing to interact. Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) define virtual teams as "groups of geographically, organizationally and/or time dispersed workers brought together by information and telecommunication technologies to accomplish one or more organizational tasks. These individuals may or may not meet face to face.

134. What is group-think?

Ans: Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.

135.                          What is social loafing?

Ans: The Social Loafing is the tendency of an individual to put less effort into the job when he is a part of the group, as compared to when he is working alone.

136.                          What is adjourning in the process of group development?

Ans: If a group has fulfilled its goals and objectives, it will move into the adjourning stage. This may happen rather quickly for a project-specific team. On the other hand, permanent groups can function for a long time without moving into the adjourning stage. Organizational developments such as a restructuring can also trigger movement into the adjourning stage.

At this stage it is important to achieve closure for the group on a positive note. Group members may feel a sense of loss and their motivation may decline when the group's work

comes to an end. Some observers have even called this the mourning stage of group development. It is therefore important to recognize the group members for their accomplishments and celebrate the group's overall success. Members may also feel some uncertainty or insecurity about the future. Team leaders and managers can alleviate these feelings through appropriate plans for the transition.

137.                          What is group cohesiveness?

Ans: Cohesiveness is the degree to which the group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the groups. Cohesiveness defines the degree of closeness that the members feel with the groups. It is understood as the extent of liking each member has towards others in the group and how far everyone wants to remain as a member of the group.

“Cohesiveness refers to the extent of unity ‘in the group and is reflected in members’ conformity to the norms of the group, feeling of attraction for each other and wanting to be co-members of the group.” Attraction, cohesiveness and conformity are all intertwined. The more the members feel attracted to the group, the greater will be the group cohesiveness. The greater the cohesiveness, the greater the influence of the group members to persuade one another to conform to the group norms. The greater the conformity, the greater the identity of the members to the group and the greater the group cohesiveness.

138.                          What is risk shift?

The transfer of risk to another party. Risk shifting has many connotations, the most common being the tendency of a company or financial institution facing financial distress to take on excessive risk. This high-risk behavior is generally undertaken with the objective of generating high rewards to equity owners – who face little additional downside risk but may garner significant extra return – and has the effect of shifting risk from shareholders to debt holders. Risk shifting also occurs when a company goes from offering a defined benefit plan to its employees, to a defined contribution plan. In this case, the risk associated with pensions has shifted from the company to its employees.

139.                          Differentiate between formal and informal groups.

The following are the differences between formal and informal groups:

1.          The groups formed by the management of the organisation for accomplishing a specific task are known as Formal Groups. The groups that are formed by the employees themselves as per their likes and prejudices is known as Informal Groups.

2.           The formal groups are deliberately created by the organisation, whereas the informal groups are established voluntarily.

3.          The formal groups are big in size as compared to an informal group. Moreover, there can be sub-groups in a single formal group.

4.          The structure of a formal group is designed in a hierarchical manner while the informal group lacks structure or say it has no structure.

5.          In a formal group, the position of a member defines its importance in the group, but in an informal group, every member is as important as any other member.

6.          In a formal group, the relationship between the members is professional, they

gather just to accomplish the task allotted to them. On the other hand, in an informal group, there is a personal relationship between members, they share their opinions, experiences, problems, information with each other.

7. In a formal group, the flow of communication is restricted due to the unity of command. In contrast to an informal group, the flow of communication stretches in all directions; there is no such restriction.

140. Give two examples of a informal group in an organisation. Friendship groups, cliques

141. What do you mean by norming with reference to group formation? Answer: The norming stage is the time in group formation where the group becomes a cohesive unit. Morale is high as group members actively acknowledge the talents, skills and experience that each member brings to the group. A sense of community is established and the group remains focused on the group's purpose and goal. Members are flexible, interdependent and trust each other. Leadership is shared, and members are willing to adapt to the needs of the group. Information flows seamlessly and is uninhibited due to the sense of security members feel in the norming stage.

142.                          Give two examples of a formal group in an organisation?

Answer:

Command groups: The groups that consist of managers and their subordinates. Committees: The group of people who are appointed by an organisation, to resolve the matters, referred to them are known as Committee. For example Advisory Committee, Standing Committee, etc.

Task Forces: The group form to carry out a particular task is known as Task Forces.

143.                          What are group norm?

Answer : Group norms are the informal guidelines of behavior and a code of conduct that provides some order and conformity to group activities and operations. These rules are expected to be followed by all the group members. These norms and rules usually develop gradually and informally as group members learn as to what behaviors are necessary for the group to function effectively.

Swetha:

144. What is the difference between a group and a team? Ans:

·       A team is a group of individuals who have come together to achieve a specific, common goal.

All teams are small groups, but not all small groups operate as teams.**

·       Teams are typically small groups of people with a common purpose and a sense of belonging, who exert influence over one another.

Groups                                                Teams

Goals	Goals may be	Clear, elevating goals
	discussed in general	drive all aspects of team
	terms.	accomplishment.
Roles and	Roles and	Roles and
Responsibilities	responsibilities may	responsibilities are
	be discussed but are	clearly developed and
	not always explicitly	discussed.
	defined or developed .
Rules	Rules are not formally	Rules and operating
	developed and evolve	procedures are clearly
	according the group’s	discussed and developed
	needs	to help team work
		together.
Methods	Group members	Team members
	interact, and work is	collaborate and
	usually divided.	coordinate efforts.
		Team members work
		together
		interdependently.

145.                          Discuss some of the consequences of group cohesiveness.

Ans: Group Cohesiveness is the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.

Increasing Group Cohesiveness

1.     Make the group smaller.

2.     Encourage agreement with group goals.

3.     Increase time members spend together.

4.     Increase group status and admission difficultly.

5.     Stimulate competition with other groups.

6.     Give rewards to the group, not individuals.

7.     Physically isolate the group.

146.                          Bring out the dynamics of formal and informal groups.

Dynamics of formal group: group dynamics is concerned with why and how groups develop. There are several theories as to why groups develop. A classic theory, developed by George Homans, suggests that groups develop based on activities, interactions, and sentiments. Basically, the theory means that when individuals share common activities, they will have more interaction and will develop attitudes (positive or negative) toward each other. The major element in this theory is the interaction of the individuals involved. Group dynamics as related to development concerns not only why groups form but also how. The most common framework for examining the "how" of group formation was developed by Bruce Tuckman in the 1960s. In essence, the steps in group formation imply that groups do not usually perform at maximum effectiveness when they are first established. They encounter several stages of development as they strive to become productive and effective. Most groups experience the same developmental stages with similar conflicts and resolutions.

Dynamics of Informal group: Often, these groups serve a counter organizational function, attempting to counteract the coercive tendencies in an organization. If management prescribes production norms that the group considers unfair, for instance, the group's recourse is to adopt less demanding norms and to use its ingenuity to discover ways in which it can sabotage management's imposed standards.Informal groups have a powerful influence on the effectiveness of an organization, and can even subvert its formal goals. But the informal group's role is not limited to resistance. The impact of the informal group upon the larger formal group depends on the norms that the informal group sets. So the informal group can make the formal organization more effective, too.

147.                          Explain some of the threats to group effectiveness.

Threats to group effectiveness are as follows:

No clear sense of purpose; goals and objectives have not been clarified (often this can be attributed to ineffective management)

Formality surrounding and encumbering the group; the environment is void of humor, excitement, or fulfillment; members dread the workplace and any interaction with group members or the leader

Unequal member participation; certain members are stigmatized, ignored, or undervalued; weighted participation is necessary to gain diverse and quality input; decisions consistently made by the same group members generate tunnel vision and reduce creativity and innovation

Poor listening skills; team members’ inability to listen to each other creates errors and misunderstandings; the inability to listen effectively impacts all other points (goal attainment, environment, conflict, participation, communication, and roles); poor communication creates barriers

Lack of openness and healthy conflict; expression and idea exchange must be encouraged (it is counterproductive to view differing opinions as antagonistic)

148.                          What are group norms? Discuss the characteristics of group norms.

Unspoken and often unwritten set of informal rules that govern individual behaviors in a group. Group norms vary based on the group and issues important to the group. Without

group norms, individuals would have no understanding of how to act in social situations.

Every group has a set of norms: a code of conduct about what is acceptable behaviour. They may apply to everyone in the group or to certain members only. Some norms will be strictly adhered to while others permit a wide range of behaviour. The group usually has sanctions (e.g., disapproval) which it may apply in the case of "deviation". Common norms in groups include: taboo subjects, open expression of feelings, interrupting or challenging the tutor, volunteering one's services, avoiding conflict, length and frequency of contributions. All of these are usually hidden or implicit and new members may find it difficult to adjust. Over the first few meetings of a group there may be confusion about the norms are with consequent frustration, discomfort, and lost momentum. It may be helpful to invite a group to break into subgroups to discuss its norms and perhaps to discard some of those which seem counter-productive

149. Is there a relationship between group norms and group cohesiveness? Explain-A norm is accepted by group members. It is a rule of conduct that has been established by group members. They are standardized generalizations concerning expected behaviour in matters that are of some importance of the group. A rule dictates what must be done by another whereas norm refers to what should be done.Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members. This definition includes important aspects of cohesiveness, including its multidimensionality, dynamic nature, instrumental basis, and emotional dimension. Both group norms and group cohesiveness combined with other factors lead to group efficiency. Hence the shared relationship would be that both group norms and group cohesiveness encourage smaller groups to agree mutually and participate in achieving the same goals,stimulates competition and provide rewards to groups rather than individuals therefore increasing productivity.

150. What are the advantages and limitations of cohesive groups? Answer: ADVANTAGES :

1)Similar interest 2)Group Dignity 3)commitment 4)better cooperation 5)time saving

6)improves communication

DISADVANTAGES: 1)Low level of productivity 2)lack of creativity

3)lack of innovation 4)Domination

151.                          Elucidate the objectives of forming groups.

Group formation has certain objectives. The purpose behind group formation may be task achievement, problem-solving, proximity or other socio-psychological

requirements. Group formation is based on activities, interactions and sentiments.

1. Task accomplishment:

The basic purpose of group formation is the achievement of certain objectives through task performance.

Individuals come closer in order to understand the tasks and decide on the procedures of performance.

In any organization, task accomplishment is the reason for which different groups such as an engineering group; marketing group, foreman’s group and personnel group are formed for achievement of the organizations’ goals.

2. Problem Solving:

When people foresee or face certain problems, they unite to solve the problems. Unity has strength.

A group provides strength to members who are willing to challenge any problem. Group behaviour gives more strength to come down heavily on problems.

3. Proximity:

People form groups because of proximity and attraction towards each other. The group formation theory is based on propinquity, which means that individuals affiliate because of spatial or geographical proximity.

They interact frequently with each other on many topics, because this interactive communication is rewarding.

4. Socio-psychological Factors:

Sentiments and action-uniformities bring people closer. They also form groups for safety, security and social achievements.

People cooperate with members of the group on social as well as economic grounds to reach satisfactory levels.

People form groups basically for activities, interaction and due to sentiments. People living in proximity frequently discuss their problems.

They try to reduce their tensions and achieve satisfaction. Individuals interest

each other only when they have common attitudes and sentiments.

People with diverse attitudes form groups under certain compulsions to meet unexpected problems.

Employees form unions to ensure the safety and security of jobs. Outside the factory, they form groups for religious, social, cultural and political activities.

152.                          How does group size affect group performance?

Ans- Does the size of a group affect the group’s overall behavior? The answer to this question is a definite ‘Yes’, but the effect is contingent on what dependent variables you look at. The evidence indicates, for instance that smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones, and that individuals perform better in smaller groups. However, if the group is engaged in problem solving, large groups consistently get better marks than their smaller counterparts. Translating these results into specific numbers is a bit more hazardous, but we can offer some parameters. Large groups—with a dozen or more members are good for gaining diverse input. So if the goal of the group is fact finding, larger groups will be more effective. On the other hand, smaller groups are better at doing something productive with that input. Groups of approximately seven members therefore tend to be more effective for taking action.

One of the most important findings related to the size of a group has been labeled social loafing. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. It directly challenges the log that the productivity of the group as a whole should at least equal to the sum of the productivity of each individual in that group.

153. Briefly discuss the various roles each member may adopt in a group. Ans- People play different roles in groups. And people play multiple roles in groups.

Task roles, maintenance roles and hindering roles are all important roles for facilitators to be aware of and recognize.Task roles refer to the actions of individuals that help move the project, decision, task along. The following are the roles of every member in a group-

Initiating

·       Proposing task or goals; defining a group problem; suggesting procedure or ideas for getting the task accomplished.

Information or Opinion Seeking

·       Requesting facts; seeking relevant information about a question or concern; asking for suggestions, ideas or opinions.

Clarifying

·       Interpreting or reflecting ideas and suggestions; clearing up conclusions; indicating alternatives and issues before the group; giving examples, defining terms.

Summarizing

·       Pulling together related ideas; restating suggestions after the group has discussed them; offering a decision or conclusion for the group to accept or reject.

Consensus Testing

·       Checking with the group to see how much agreement has been reached and how ready the group members are to consider a decision.

Encouraging

·       Being friendly, warm, and responsive to others; accepting others and their contributions; regarding others by giving them an opportunity to contribute or be recognized.

Harmonizing

·       Attempting to reconcile disagreements; reducing tension, getting people to explore their differences.

Expressing Group Feelings

·       Sensing feelings, mood, relationships within the group; sharing one's own feelings with other members.

Gatekeeping

·       Helping to keep communication channels open: facilitating the participation of others, suggesting procedures that permit sharing remarks.

Compromising

·       When your own ideas or status is involved in a conflict, offering a compromise which yields status; admitting error, modifying ideas in interest of group cohesion or growth.

154. Think of a time when you observed or exhibited social loafing. What contributed to it? How could it have been prevented or minimised?

Ans- In social psychology, social loafing is the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone.This is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals, but should be distinguished from the accidental coordination problems that groups sometimes experience.

The contributions to Social loafing that I observed were as under:

·       Diffusion of responsibility/Evaluation potential

·       Lack of Motivation

·       Dispensability of effort

·       "Sucker" effect/Aversion

·       Lack of Attribution and equity/Matching of effort

·       Submaximal goal setting

I could have been prevented or minimised by using the three Cs of Motivation-

Collaboration, content and choice.

·     Collaboration is a way to get everyone involved in the group by assigning each member special, meaningful tasks

·       Content identifies the importance of the individual's specific tasks within the group.

·     Choice gives the group members the opportunity to choose the task they want to fulfill

155.                          What factors helps to induce or sustain the cohesiveness of the group?

And:-.             The Factors are as follows:-

The ability of a group to be more or less cohesive is dependent on several factors. Here are some important factors that have been found to impact group cohesiveness.

Similarity-

When the group members are similar, it's easier for the group to become cohesive. The similarity can be due to several factors, such as having similar values, beliefs, life circumstances, or pressing life issues.

Example: A group of patients with depression might be more cohesive than a group of ten members each with different mental health diagnoses.

Group Openness to New Members-

When a group is open and welcoming to new members, group members more easily develop cohesion. Often over time, group membership will change due to various life circumstances or changing individual needs.

Example: Josh's bowling team lost Frank when he moved out of town. James joined the team in Frank's place. The rest of the bowling team welcomed James with open arms. James felt accepted and began to really look forward to bowling nights.

Trust-

When group members feel they can trust each other, group cohesiveness is more easily developed.

Example: A veteran shares with his PTSD support group things he did in Iraq for which he feels guilty. The other veterans in the group provide reassurance and don't judge him. The group is closer as a result.

Stage of the Group-

When a new group forms, there tends to be an initial burst in group cohesiveness because the first goal of any group is often to form.

Example: Jaime joined a new weight loss group to help her keep her weight loss on track. When Jaime and the other new group members went to the first meeting, they started sharing their weight loss struggles. Jaime instantly felt close to the other members and was happy she joined the group.

Past Group Experiences-

When members of a new group have had previous positive group experiences, they are more easily able to establish group cohesion. When members have had past group experiences that were unfavorable, they will resist developing cohesion.

Example: Last year Julie was involved with a work group project that had lots of tension and conflict. The group had so much difficulty working together that the project was never completed, and the group was disbanded. When Julie was assigned a new work group this year, she dreaded it and kept her distance from the other group members.

156. Think of a small work group that you belonged to recently. Assess the level of its cohesiveness. What factor contributed to or prevented its cohesiveness.

And:- Time Together: It is quite natural that the more time people spend together, the more they will get to know each other and more tendency there will be to get closer to each other, thus strengthening the degree of cohesiveness. This is based upon the assumption that you will spend more time with only those whom you like personally and want to continue interacting with them.

These interactions typically lead to common interests and increased attraction. The idea of long courtships or the idea that couples live together before marriage is primarily to ensure that there will be a high degree of cohesiveness in the marriage if the couple gets to know each other well by spending more time together and in close proximity to each other.

In an organizational setting, people who work near each other are more likely to spend more time together. For example, among clerical workers in one organization, it was found that distance between their desks was the single most important determinant of the rate of interaction among them.

Group Size: Since continuous and close interaction among members is a fundamental necessity for cohesiveness, it would be natural to assume that large groups restrict the extent of communication and interaction with each other, thus resulting in the reduction of degree of cohesiveness.

Another problem with large size groups is that there is a likelihood of forming small groups within the large groups. This would result in the dilution of the common group goal thus increasing the extent of power politics play. This tends to decrease the overall cohesiveness.

Another interesting aspect about group cohesion depends upon whether the group is all male, all female or mixed. Studies showed that if all members were of the same sex then smell groups had better cohesion than large ones. But when the groups were made up of both males and females, then larger groups had better cohesion. It seems that people like to join mixed groups than single sex groups and an opportunity to interact with a larger set of both sexes increases cohesiveness.

Difficult in Entry: Some groups are not easy to join. The members are very carefully selected and the selected member feels a sense of pride and accomplishment. The more

difficult it is to get into a group, the more cohesive that group becomes. The reason being that in exclusive and elite groups the members are selected on the basis of certain characteristics and these characteristics being common to all add to the degree of liking and attraction towards each other.

The more exclusive the group, the more is the closeness among members. Accordingly, individuals like to join such exclusive groups. That is one reason, for example, why many bright students want to study at Harvard and Princeton universities. Similarly, exclusive yacht clubs and golf clubs have applicants on their waiting lists for many years before they are accepted.

Threat and Competition: Whenever the common group goal is threatened, cohesiveness increases. Also, such cohesiveness increases the importance of the goals. When we fight for a goal then the goal gets the highest priority. For example, when a hostile group wants to take over a corporation, the Board of Directors of the corporation suddenly becomes a united front against the threats and their cohesiveness reaches its peak. Similarly, management threats frequently bring together an otherwise disarrayed union. Thus the threatening party will have less chance of success when faced with a unified force.

Previous Successes: When a group achieves a meaningful goal, the cohesiveness of the group increases because the success is shared by all the members and each one feels responsible for the achievement. For example, when a sports team wins an important game, every one in the team congratulates every other member of the team for this success.

157. Discuss some of the benefits and problems that informal group may bring to both the work group and employer.

ANS: The benefits of informal group to work group are

1. Sense of belonging. In a formal organisation, the worker is one among the thousands of workers and to the management, he is just a worker without any attachment. Under these circumstances, the workers will not have a sense of belonging. Informal organisation fills this void by constantly emphasising and re-inforcing each member's individual personality. It gives to each member that human consideration which boosts his self-image and personality.

2.  Safety valve for emotional problems. In the daily work routine of a worker, there are many opportunities for tension and frustration. For example, his supervisor might have reprimanded him or an overbearing customer might have harassed him. In all such situations, he seeks a sympathetic ear of a friend in the informal organisation. His friend is mostly the person who has had similar experiences and can thus share and understand his trouble.

3.    Aid on the job. In the casé of accidents or illness, members of an informal organisation may help one another. If a member breaks a company rule, they may cover up for him. They may protect one another from authoritarian action. They may increase the group's efficiency by changing work assignments or by increasing the specialisation of their tasks beyond what is prescribed in the job description.

4.  Breeding ground for innovation and originality. By enabling members to modify

the job situation more to their liking, the informal group creates the necessary environment for individual innovation and originality. Protected by his group, the individual can experiment with his novel ideas without having to persuade the boss before trying them out.

5.     Important channel of communication. News travels quickly via informal organisations. It is the clandestine transmitter and receiver of information before it is officially released. After the news is released, the informal organisations amend, amplify and interpret it. Thus each person gets a larger, more detailed and meaningful but possibly distorted and erroneous picture of what is going on the organisation.

6.  Social control. The informal organisation provides all its members a set of norms — "guides to correct behaviour." These guides serve as dividing lines between good and bad behaviour, between moral and immoral acts, between legitimate and illegitimate activities. Members are expected to conform to these norms. A deviant may be ostracised, condemned or censured.

7.  Check on authority. Informal organisation forces the manager to plan and act more carefully than he would otherwise. Every manager knows that it is a check and balance on his unlimited use of authority.

Problems of informal groups to work groups are

Resistance to change. Although there are no charts or blueprints to bind an informal organisation, there are customs, conventions and culture which bind it. Therefore, the group resists those management demands which are perceived by it as detracting from its culture or threatening the existing relationships among the members.

2.  Organisation objectives may be affected. Members of the informal group are likely to put their own group need satisfaction ahead of organisation's objectives. By this, the group's objectives are likely to conflict with or take precedence over the organisation's goals. The result is, the organisation suffers.

3.    Rumour. One undesirable characteristic of informal communication called the 'grapevine' is its function as a carrier of rumours. Research shows that the story given at the origin of a rumour is filtered, elaborated or amended in the informal communication channel. This leads to undesirable consequences.

4.  Group-think philosophy. Some members begin to worship the group. They come to believe that what they seek must be "good" because the group has decided so. Thus, there develops a delusion of righteousness. Conformity is induced in which an individual loses his identity.

158. "There a relationship between group cohesiveness job satisfaction." Do you agree or disagree? Justify.

Ans: Yes, I agree that there is a relationship between group cohesiveness and job satisfaction. Cohesiveness contributes to job satusfaction because of the following reasons:

-People in cohesive groups experience fewer work related anxieties. -People in cohesive groups tend to have lower absenteeism and turnover. -Cohesiveness decreases productivity differences among groups.

159. "There is a relationship between group cohesiveness and individual growth." Do you agree or disagree? Justify.

Ans: Yes, there is a relationship between group cohesiveness and individual group. Group cohesiveness has positive consequences and encourages individual growth in the following ways:

-Increased morale

-Increased bonhomie, sociability and friendliness -Reduced conflict

-Better communication skills

-An individual is able to look at things from different perspectives, thus widening their horizon of thoughts.

-It encourages individuals to be more productive and efficient, thereby leading to individual growth.

In this manner, group cohesiveness helps to increase an individual’s morale, reduce conflicts, encourage more sociable and friendly behaviour, improve communication skills, look at the same situation from different perspectives and increase productivity as well as efficiency.

160. "There is a relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity." Do you agree or disagree ? Justify.

Ans: Yes, I agree that there is a relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity. Cohesiveness contributes to group productivity because of the following reasons:

-People in cohesive groups experience fewer work related anxieties. -People in cohesive groups tend to have lower absenteeism and turnover. -Cohesiveness decreases productivity differences among groups.

161. What are the symptoms of groupthink? What specific steps can managers take to counteract the groupthink evolving in their group?

Symptoms of Groupthink

Rationalization:

This is when team members convince themselves that despite evidence to the contrary, the decision or alternative being presented is the best one.

"Those other people don't agree with us because they haven't researched the problem as extensively as we have."

Peer Pressure:

When a team member expresses an opposing opinion or questions the rationale behind a decision, the rest of the team members work together to pressure or penalize that person

into compliance.

Complacency:

After a few successes, the group begins to feel like any decision they make is the right one because there is no disagreement from any source.

Moral High Ground:

Each member of the group views him or herself as moral: The combination of moral minds is therefore thought not to be likely to make a poor or immoral decision. When morality is used as a basis for decision-making, the pressure to conform is even greater because no individual wants to be perceived as immoral.

Stereotyping:

As the group becomes more uniform in their views, they begin to see outsiders as possessing a different and inferior set of morals and characteristics from themselves. These perceived negative characteristics are then used to discredit the opposition.

Censorship:

Members censor their opinions in order to conform.

Information that is gathered is censored so that it also conforms to, or supports the chosen decision or alternative.

Illusion of Unanimity:

Because no one speaks out, everyone in the group feels the group's decision is unanimous. This is what feeds the Groupthink and causes it to spiral out of control.

To avoid Groupthink, it is important to have a process in place for checking the fundamental assumptions behind important decisions, for validating the decision-making process, and for evaluating the risks involved. For significant decisions, make sure your team does the following in their decision-making process:

·       Explores objectives.

·       Explores alternatives.

·       Encourages ideas to be challenged without reprisal.

·       Examines the risks if the preferred choice is chosen.

·       Tests assumptions.

·       If necessary, goes back and re-examines initial alternatives that were rejected.

·       Gathers relevant information from outside sources.

·       Processes this information objectively.

·     Has at least one contingency plan .

There are many group techniques that can help with this, including the "Mind Tools" listed below. By using one or more of these techniques to accomplish aspects of the group's work,

you will vary the group's ways of working, and so guard against Groupthink and help make better decisions.

162. Think of some groups of which you are a member or have been a member.Identify the specific norms of the group. What group functions do these norms serve? How are these norms enforced?

Group norms are the informal guidelines of behavior and a code of conduct that provides some order and conformity to group activities and operations. These rules are expected to be followed by all the group members. These norms and rules usually develop gradually and informally as group members learn as to what behaviors are necessary for the group to function effectively. These norms may include a code of dress for meetings or being on time for the meetings and behaving in a predictable manner both within and outside the group meetings.

163. Discuss the factors influencing group behavior with illustrations from corporate world

PESTLE factors influence corporate behaviour in many ways. They cause organisations to change the way they operate, however the size and nature of change is dependent upon which factor is causing the change; (political, economic, social, technological, legal, or environmental).

Political

Examples of political factors could be changes in government legislation. This could affect an organisations Corporate behaviour as they would have to change the way they operate in order to implement these changes; some employees may not like the new changes made.

Economic

Recession is an example of an economic factor. If the economy were to be in a recession, businesses may find they have to reduce jobs. This would affect Corporate behaviour as business teams would be short of skills and ideas in order to operate effectively.

Social

Changes in trends and the market is a social factor which affects Corporate behaviour. Organisations may have to change their products or services in order to keep up to date with new trends. In order to do this, employees may be required to learn new skills within a short amount of time to make these changes; relationships between employees and management could be at risk due to these changes.

Technological

Implementing technology within organisations could mean more virtual meetings and fewer face to face meetings. As a result, relationships between management and employees could weaken as a result of less face to face conversations.

Legal

Legislative rules such as tax may increase which would increase an organisation’s

costs. Changes such as, changing the way the organisation operates may have to be made in order to cover these extra costs.

Environmental

Environmental factors could be any factors which prevent damage to the environment. For example, more employees may be required to telework to reduce the number of employees physically travelling to offices thus reducing carbon dioxide emissions. However this may lead to isolation as communication is reduced, weakening Corporate behaviour within firms.

164.                          Explain the causes and consequences of group cohesiveness:

Ans:

Causes of group cohesiveness:

The bonds that link group members to one another and to their group as a whole are not believed to develop spontaneously. Over the years, social scientists have explained the phenomenon of group cohesiveness in different ways. Some have suggested that cohesiveness among group members develops from a heightened sense of belonging.

Attraction, task commitment and group pride are also said to cause group cohesion.

Consequences of Group Cohesiveness

1.  The group's capacity in retaining members increases.

2.  The members conform to the norms.

3.   Members communicate frequently, take greatest participation in group activities and the rate of absences low.

4.  High cohesiveness affect production in a positive way depending on the goals of the group. Group cohesiveness has only positive consequences.

165.                          Discuss the Tuckman's Model of group development.

Dr Bruce Tuckman published his Forming Storming Norming Performing model in 1965. He added a fifth stage, Adjourning, in the 1970s. The Forming Storming Norming Performing theory is an elegant and helpful explanation of team development and behaviour (US spelling: behavior). Similarities can be seen with other models, such as Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum and especially with Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership model, developed about the same time.

Tuckman's model explains that as the team develops maturity and ability, relationships establish, and the leader changes leadership style. Beginning with a directing style, moving through coaching, then participating, finishing delegating and almost detached. At this point the team may produce a successor leader and the previous leader can move on to develop a new team. This progression of team behaviour and leadership style can be seen clearly in the Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum - the authority and freedom extended by the leader to the team increases while the control of the leader reduces.

The progression is:

1.              forming

2.              storming

3.              norming

4.              performing

Here are the features of each phase: forming - stage 1

High dependence on leader for guidance and direction. Little agreement on team aims other than received from leader. Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear. Leader must be prepared to answer lots of questions about the team's purpose, objectives and external relationships. Processes are often ignored. Members test tolerance of system and leader. Leader directs (similar to Situational Leadership 'Telling' mode).

storming - stage 2

Decisions don't come easily within group. Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in relation to other team members and the leader, who might receive challenges from team members. Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist. Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles. The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues. Compromises may be required to enable progress. Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership 'Selling' mode).

norming - stage 3

Agreement and consensus largely forms among the team, who respond well to facilitation by leader. Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted. Big decisions are made by group agreement. Smaller decisions may be delegated to individuals or small teams within group. Commitment and unity is strong. The team may engage in fun and social activities. The team discusses and develops its processes and working style. There is general respect for the leader and some of leadership is more shared by the team. Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the Situational Leadership 'Participating' mode).

performing - stage 4

The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why it is doing what it is doing. The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet with no interference or participation from the leader. There is a focus on over-achieving goals, and the team makes most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader. The team has a high degree of autonomy. Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team positively, and necessary changes to processes and structure are made by the team. The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way. Team members look after each other. The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader. The team does not need to be instructed or assisted. Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal development. Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational Leadership 'Delegating' mode).

166.                          Explain the different models of group development.

In addition to the Tuckman model of group development we have the following models:

1. Johnson and Johnson

Johnson and Johnson's seven-stage life cycle model is based on an earlier four-stage model

developed in the 1960s. The four-stage model of forming, storming, norming, and performing was based on leaders who were non-directive, passive, and made no attempts to intervene in the group process. In contrast, the Johnson model utilizes a leader who is aware of and attempts to influence the group process. The seven stages are: Defining and Structuring Procedures and Becoming Oriented; Conforming to Procedures and Getting Acquainted; Recognizing Mutuality and Building Trust; Rebelling and Differentiating; Committing to and Taking Ownership for the Goals, Procedures, and Other Members; Functioning Maturely and Productively; and Terminating.

2. InterVarsity

InterVarsity follows the classic four-stage model under different names: Exploration, Transition, Cohesion/Action, and Termination. The model below is from Steve Barker:

A.    Exploration. The key issue at this stage is inclusion. Members are asking three sets of questions:

1.     People: "Do I feel a part of this group? Do I want to include the others in my life? Can I trust the others enough to risk expressing my true thoughts and feelings?"

2.     Power: "Will I be included in the decision-making process of the group? Will my ideas be included in the discussion?"

3.     Purpose: "How will the group use its time? What kind of commitments will the group ask me to make? Will the group meet my personal needs?"

B.    Transition. The key issue at this stage is conflict. The members' needs are again threefold:

1.     People: "Members must experience a sense of belonging—of `rightness,' comfortableness and security in the group."

2.     Power: The need is for shared leadership and a sense of ownership.

3.     Purpose: The development of shared goals and objectives, usually formulated in a covenant, is crucial.

C.    Action. The key issue at this stage is freedom. This is a productive time in the life of the group. Members are "Free to be themselves … . Free to commit themselves to the group covenant … . [and] Free to talk openly."

D.    Termination. The key issues are celebration and commemoration. The group must come to a successful closure. This is the most neglected part of group life.

Inter-Varsity has expanded this four-stage model by also distinguishing the sequential trust levels within the group: Reservation, Conflict/Affirmation, Vulnerability, and Trust. The trust levels follow closely, but not exactly, the stages of group life.

3. Serendipity House

In the Serendipity model, there are three phases: Beginning (6-8 weeks with subphases of: history-giving, affirmation, and need-level sharing), Advanced (12-15 weeks), and Graduation (12-15 weeks). Each group meeting focuses on three tasks: group-building, Bible-study, and service/mission. The elements are arranged in a "flying wedge," with group-building occupying the major portion of the Beginning and late Graduation stages. Although it is not given a name in the current Serendipity material, the late Graduation phase is a time of celebration and closure which was formerly (1987) identified as a separate stage called

Releasing.

4. Reid

Reid's model is a variation on the classic four-stage model. Instead it has five stages: Dependence; Resistance to Freedom; Adolescent Rebellion; Celebration and Independence; Interdependence.

5. Hester

In also a five-stage model, Hester focuses specifically on group interaction: Sizing Up/Testing; Expressing Strengths and Convictions; Encountering Life Histories; "Here and Now" Confrontation of Selves; Reflection/Summing Up.

6. Hestenes

Roberta Hestenes has a six-stage model: Pre-Contract, Orientation; Power and Control; Trust; Differentiation and Change; Conclusion/New Beginning. Her Pre-Contract stage ends with the first group meeting and is therefore preparatory.

7. Neighbour

Ralph Neighbour suggests a five-stage model: Get-Acquainted (5 weeks); Affirming/Congealing/Conflict (6 weeks); Goal Setting/Community (3 weeks); Koinonia/Outreach (11 weeks); Multiplying (3 weeks). All of Neighbour's groups are expected to multiply within six months.

In The Shepherd's Guidebook, Neighbour delineates a four-stage model: Get-Acquainted, Conflict , Community, Outreach. The overlap between the two approaches is clear, with Outreach encompassing the final two stages of his five-stage model. This again indicates the flexibility of terms in describing each stage.

8. Clemmons and Hester

They follow a five-stage model: Ambiguity, Revolt, Work, Consensus, and Consolidation.

9. McBride

Also a five-stage model, this is a modification of the classic four-stage approach. McBride's four stages are Birth/Infancy (Forming (2-3 weeks); Childhood (Norming (6-7 weeks); Teenage (Conforming (5-6 weeks); Maturity (Performing (30 weeks); and Old Age and Demise (Reforming (5-6 weeks). McBride also mentions the importance of a "pre-natal" period.

10. Olsen

Olsen provides a slightly different perspective on the life cycle. His approach is one of a pastor-teacher in charge of organizing a small-group program rather than one of a group leader or member. His model is an interlocking set of eight stages, with two stages of four:

Initiating (before the first group meeting); Formation (subphases of discovery, romance, struggle, and investment); Functioning, and Terminating.

11. Turner

Nathan Turner's approach focuses on the interpersonal needs within the group, and is remarkable in its simplicity. The three interpersonal needs are inclusion, control, and affection. In the life of a group they appear first in sequential order, and then in reverse order, creating six stages. There is some overlap between the different stages.